The structure of the atomic nucleus (proton, neutron, electron). Chapter II. The structure of atoms and the periodic law

NEUTRON(n) (from lat. neuter - neither one nor the other) - an elementary particle with zero electric. charge and mass, slightly greater than the mass of the proton. Along with the proton under the general name. The nucleon is part of the atomic nuclei. H. has spin 1/2 and therefore obeys Fermi - Dirac statistics(is a fermion). belongs to the family adra-nov; has baryon number B= 1, i.e. included in the group baryons.

It was discovered in 1932 by J. Chadwick, who showed that the hard penetrating radiation arising from the bombardment of beryllium nuclei by a-particles consists of electrically neutral particles with a mass approximately equal to that of a proton. In 1932, D. D. Ivanenko and W. Heisenberg put forward the hypothesis that atomic nuclei consist of protons and H. In contrast to the charge. particles, H. easily penetrates the nuclei at any energy and with a high probability causes nuclear reactions capture (n,g), (n,a), (n, p) if the energy balance in the reaction is positive. Probability of exothermic increases with deceleration H. inversely proportional. his speed. An increase in the probability of H. capture reactions when they are slowed down in hydrogen-containing media was discovered by E. Fermi (E. Fermi) and colleagues in 1934. The ability of H. to cause the fission of heavy nuclei, discovered by O. Gan (O. Hahn) and F. Strassmann (F. . Strassman) in 1938 (see nuclear fission), served as the basis for the creation of nuclear weapons and. The peculiarity of the interaction of slow neutrons with matter, which have a de Broglie wavelength of the order of atomic distances (resonance effects, diffraction, etc.), serves as the basis for the widespread use of neutron beams in physics solid body. (Classification of H. by energy - fast, slow, thermal, cold, ultracold - see Art. neutron physics.)

In the free state, H. is unstable - it undergoes B-decay; n p + e - + v e; its lifetime t n = 898(14) s, the boundary energy of the electron spectrum is 782 keV (see Fig. neutron beta decay). IN bound state in the composition of stable nuclei, H. is stable (according to experimental estimates, its lifetime exceeds 10 32 years). According to aster. It is estimated that 15% of the visible matter of the Universe is represented by H., which are part of the 4 He nuclei. H. is the main. component neutron stars. Free H. in nature are formed in nuclear reactions, caused by a-particles of radioactive decay, cosmic rays and as a result of spontaneous or forced fission of heavy nuclei. Arts. sources of H. are nuclear reactors, nuclear explosions, accelerators of protons (for cf. energy) and electrons with targets made of heavy elements. Sources of monochromatic beams H. with an energy of 14 MeV are low-energy. deuteron accelerators with a tritium or lithium target, and in the future, thermonuclear installations of the CTS may turn out to be intense sources of such H. (Cm. .)

Key Features H.

Weight h. t p = 939.5731(27) MeV/c 2 = = 1.008664967(34) at. units masses 1.675. 10 -24 g. The difference between the masses of H. and the proton was measured from the max. accuracy from energetic. balance of the H. capture reaction by a proton: n + p d + g (g-quantum energy = 2.22 MeV), m n- m p = 1.293323 (16) MeV/c 2 .

Electric charge H. Q n = 0. Most accurate direct measurements Q n performed by the deflection of beams of cold or ultracold H. in electrostatic. field: Q n<= 3·10 -21 her is the electron charge). Cosv. electrical data. macroscopic neutrality. amount of gas give Qn<= 2 10 -22 e.

Spin H. J= 1 / 2 was determined from direct experiments on beam splitting H. in an inhomogeneous magnetic field. field into two components [in the general case, the number of components is (2 J + 1)].

Consistent description of the structure of hadrons based on modern. strong interaction theory - quantum chromodynamics- while meets theoretical. difficulties, however, for many tasks are quite satisfactory. results gives a description of the interaction of nucleons, represented as elementary objects, through the exchange of mesons. Experiment. exploration of spaces. structure H. is carried out using the scattering of high-energy leptons (electrons, muons, neutrinos, considered in modern theory as point particles) on deuterons. The contribution of scattering on a proton is measured in dep. experiment and can be subtracted using def. calculate. procedures.

Elastic and quasi-elastic (with splitting of the deuteron) scattering of electrons on the deuteron makes it possible to find the distribution of the electric density. charge and magnet. moment H. ( form factor H.). According to the experiment, the distribution of the magnetic density. moment H. with an accuracy of the order of several. percent coincides with the distribution of electric density. proton charge and has an RMS radius of ~0.8·10 -13 cm (0.8 F). Magn. form factor H. is quite well described by the so-called. dipole f-loy G M n = m n (1 + q 2 /0.71) -2 , where q 2 is the square of the transferred momentum in units (GeV/c) 2 .

More complicated is the question of the magnitude of the electric. (charge) form factor H. G E n. From experiments on scattering by the deuteron, it can be concluded that G E n ( q 2 ) <= 0.1 in the interval of squares of the transferred impulses (0-1) (GeV/c) 2 . At q 2 0 due to zero electric. charge H. G E n- > 0, but experimentally it is possible to determine dG E n ( q 2 )/dq 2 | q 2=0 . This value is max. exactly found from measurements scattering length H. on the electron shell of heavy atoms. Main part of this interaction is determined by the magnetic. moment H. Max. precise experiments give the ne-scattering length but ne = -1.378(18) . 10 -16 cm, which differs from the calculated one, determined by the magn. moment H.: a ne \u003d -1.468. 10 -16 cm. The difference between these values \u200b\u200bgives the root mean square electric. radius H.<r 2 E n >= = 0.088(12) Fili dG E n ( q 2)/dq 2 | q 2 \u003d 0 \u003d -0.02 F 2. These figures cannot be considered as final due to the large scatter of data decomp. experiments that exceed the given errors.

A feature of the interaction of H. with most nuclei is positive. scattering length, which leads to the coefficient. refraction< 1. Благодаря этому H., падающие из вакуума на границу вещества, могут испытывать полное внутр. отражение. При скорости u < (5-8) м/с (ультрахолодные H.) H. испытывают полное отражение от границы с углеродом, никелем, бериллием и др. при любом угле падения и могут удерживаться в замкнутых объёмах. Это свойство ультрахолодных H. широко используется в экспериментах (напр., для поиска ЭДМ H.) и позволяет реализовать нейтронооптич. устройства (см. neutron optics).

H. and weak (electroweak) interaction. An important source of information about the electroweak interaction is the b-decay of free H. At the quark level, this process corresponds to the transition. The reverse process of the interaction of an electron with a proton, called. inverse b-decay. This class of processes includes electronic capture, taking place in nuclei, re - n v e.

The decay of free H., taking into account the kinematic. parameters is described by two constants - vector G V, which is due to vector current conservation universal weak interaction constant, and axial vector G A, the value of which is determined by the dynamics of the strongly interacting components of the nucleon - quarks and gluons. Wave functions of the initial H. and the final proton and the transition matrix element n p due to the isotopic. invariances are calculated quite accurately. As a result, the calculation of the constants G V And G A from the decay of free H. (in contrast to calculations from the b-decay of nuclei) is not related to accounting for nuclear structural factors.

The lifetime of H. without taking into account some corrections is: t n = k(G 2 V+ 3G 2 A) -1 , where k includes kinematic. factors and the Coulomb corrections depending on the boundary energy of b-decay and radiative corrections.

Probability of decay of polarizers. H. with spin S , energies and momenta of the electron and antineutrino and R e, is generally described by the expression:

Coef. correlations a, A, B, D can be represented as a function of the parameter a = (G A/G V,)exp( i f). The phase f is non-zero or p if T- invariance is broken. In table. experiments are given. values for these coefficients. and the resulting values a and f.

There is a noticeable difference between the data experiments for t n , reaching several. percent.

The description of the electroweak interaction involving H. at higher energies is much more difficult because of the need to take into account the structure of nucleons. For example, m - capture, m - p n v m is described by at least twice the number of constants. H. also experiences electroweak interaction with other hadrons without the participation of leptons. These processes include the following.

1) Decays of hyperons L np 0 , S + np + , S - np - etc. The reduced probability of these decays in several times smaller than for nonstrange particles, which is described by introducing the Cabibbo angle (see Fig. cabibbo corner).

2) Weak interaction n - n or n - p, which manifests itself as nuclear forces that do not preserve spaces. parity.The usual magnitude of the effects caused by them is of the order of 10 -6 -10 -7 .

The interaction of H. with medium and heavy nuclei has a number of features, leading in some cases to a signifi- cant enhancing the effects parity nonconservation in nuclei. One of these effects is related. the difference between the absorption cross section of H. c in the direction of propagation and against it, which in the case of the 139 La nucleus is 7% at \u003d 1.33 eV, corresponds to R-wave neutron resonance. The reason for the amplification is a combination of low energy. the width of the states of the compound nucleus and the high density of levels with opposite parity in this compound nucleus, which provides 2–3 orders of magnitude greater mixing of components with different parity than in the low-lying states of the nuclei. As a result, a number of effects: the asymmetry of the emission of g-quanta with respect to the spin of the captured polarizers. H. in the reaction (n, g), charge emission asymmetry. particles during the decay of compound states in the reaction (n, p) or the asymmetry of the emission of a light (or heavy) fission fragment in the reaction (n, p) f). Asymmetries have a value of 10 -4 -10 -3 at thermal energy H. In R-wave neutron resonances is realized additionally. enhancement associated with the suppression of the probability of the formation of a parity-preserving component of this compound state (due to the small neutron width R-resonance) with respect to the impurity component with the opposite parity, which is s-resonance-catfish. It is the combination of several The amplification factor allows an extremely weak effect to manifest itself with a value characteristic of the nuclear interaction.

Baryon Number Violating Interactions. Theoretical models great unification And superunions predict the instability of baryons - their decay into leptons and mesons. These decays can be noticeable only for the lightest baryons - p and n, which are part of atomic nuclei. For an interaction with a change in the baryon number by 1, D B= 1, one would expect a transformation H. type: n e + p - , or a transformation with the emission of strange mesons. The search for such processes was carried out in experiments using underground detectors with a mass of several. thousand tons. Based on these experiments, it can be concluded that the decay time of H. with violation of the baryon number is more than 10 32 years.

Dr. possible type of interaction with D IN= 2 can lead to the phenomenon of interconversion H. and antineutrons in a vacuum, i.e. to oscillation . In the absence of external fields or with their small value, the states of H. and the antineutron are degenerate, since their masses are the same, therefore even superweak interaction can mix them. The criterion for the smallness of the ext. fields is the smallness of the interaction energy of the magnet. moment H. with magn. field (n and n ~ have magnetic moments opposite in sign) compared to the energy determined by time T observations H. (according to the uncertainty relation), D<=hT-one . When observing the production of antineutrons in the H. beam from a reactor or other source T is the time of flight H. to the detector. The number of antineutrons in the beam increases quadratically with the time of flight: /N n ~ ~ (T/t osc) 2 , where t osc - oscillation time.

Direct experiments to observe the production of and in cold H. beams from a high-flux reactor give a limit t osc > 10 7 s. In the upcoming experiments, we can expect an increase in sensitivity to a level of t osc ~ 10 9 s. Limiting circumstances are max. intensity of beams H. and imitation of the phenomena of antineutrons in the detector kosmich. rays.

Dr. the method of observing oscillations is the observation of the annihilation of antineutrons, which can be formed in stable nuclei. In this case, due to the large difference in the interaction energies of the emerging antineutron in the nucleus from the binding energy H. eff. the observation time becomes ~ 10 -22 s, but the large number of observed nuclei (~10 32) partially compensates for the decrease in sensitivity in comparison with the H beam experiment. some uncertainty, depending on ignorance of the exact type of interaction of the antineutron inside the nucleus, that t osc > (1-3) . 10 7 p. Creatures. increasing the limit of t osc in these experiments is hindered by the background caused by the interaction of space. neutrinos with nuclei in underground detectors.

It should be noted that the search for nucleon decay with D B= 1 and the search for -oscillations are independent experiments, since they are caused by fundamentally different. types of interactions.

Gravitational interaction H. Neutron is one of the few elementary particles, falling to-swarm in gravitac. Earth's field can be observed experimentally. Direct measurement for H. is performed with an accuracy of 0.3% and does not differ from macroscopic. The issue of compliance remains equivalence principle(equalities of inertial and gravitational masses) for H. and protons.

The most accurate experiments were carried out by the Et-vesh method for bodies with different cf. relation values A/Z, where BUT- at. room, Z- charge of nuclei (in units of elementary charge e). From these experiments follows the same acceleration of free fall for H. and protons at the level of 2·10 -9 , and the equality of gravity. and inertial mass at the level of ~10 -12 .

Gravity acceleration and deceleration are widely used in experiments with ultracold H. The use of gravitational refractometer for cold and ultracold H. allows you to measure the length of coherent scattering H. on a substance with great accuracy.

H. in cosmology and astrophysics

According to modern representations, in the model of the Hot Universe (see. hot universe theory) the formation of baryons, including protons and H., occurs in the first minutes of the life of the Universe. In the future, a certain part of H., which did not have time to decay, is captured by protons with the formation of 4 He. The ratio of hydrogen and 4 He in this case is 70% to 30% by weight. During the formation of stars and their evolution, further nucleosynthesis up to iron nuclei. The formation of heavier nuclei occurs as a result of supernova explosions with the birth of neutron stars, creating the possibility of succession. H. capture by nuclides. At the same time, the combination of the so-called. s-process - slow capture of H. with b-decay between successive captures and r-process - fast follow. capture during explosions of stars in the main. can explain the observed abundance of elements in space objects.

In the primary component of the cosmic H. rays are probably absent due to their instability. H., formed near the surface of the Earth, diffusing into space. space and decaying there, apparently, contribute to the formation of the electronic and proton components radiation belts Earth.

Lit.: Gurevich I. S., Tarasov L. V., Physics of low energy neutrons, M., 1965; Alexandrov Yu. A.,. Fundamental properties of the neutron, 2nd ed., M., 1982.

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It is well known to many from school that all matter consisted of atoms. Atoms, in turn, consist of protons and neutrons that form the nucleus of atoms and electrons located at some distance from the nucleus. Many have also heard that light also consists of particles - photons. However, the world of particles is not limited to this. To date, more than 400 different elementary particles are known. Let's try to understand how elementary particles differ from each other.

There are many parameters by which elementary particles can be distinguished from each other:

Weight.
Electric charge.
Lifetime. Almost all elementary particles have a finite lifetime after which they decay.
Spin. It can be, very approximately, considered as a rotational moment.

A few more parameters, or as they are commonly called in the science of quantum numbers. These parameters do not always have a clear physical meaning, but they are needed in order to distinguish one particle from another. All these additional parameters are introduced as some quantities that are preserved in the interaction.

Almost all particles have mass, except for photons and neutrinos (according to the latest data, neutrinos have a mass, but so small that it is often considered zero). Without mass particles can only exist in motion. The mass of all particles is different. The electron has the minimum mass, apart from the neutrino. Particles that are called mesons have a mass 300-400 times greater than the mass of an electron, a proton and a neutron are almost 2000 times heavier than an electron. Particles that are almost 100 times heavier than a proton have already been discovered. Mass, (or its energy equivalent according to Einstein's formula:

is preserved in all interactions of elementary particles.

Not all particles have an electric charge, which means that not all particles are able to participate in electromagnetic interaction. All freely existing particles electric charge multiple of the electron charge. In addition to freely existing particles, there are also particles that are only in a bound state, we will talk about them a little later.

Spin, as well as other quantum numbers of different particles are different and characterize their uniqueness. Some quantum numbers are conserved in some interactions, some in others. All these quantum numbers determine which particles interact with which and how.

The lifetime is also a very important characteristic of a particle, and we will consider it in more detail. Let's start with a note. As we said at the beginning of the article, everything that surrounds us consists of atoms (electrons, protons and neutrons) and light (photons). And where, then, are hundreds of different types of elementary particles. The answer is simple - everywhere around us, but we do not notice for two reasons.

The first of them is that almost all other particles live very little, about 10 to minus 10 seconds or less, and therefore do not form structures such as atoms, crystal lattices, etc. The second reason concerns neutrinos, although these particles do not decay, they are subject only to weak and gravitational interaction. This means that these particles interact so little that it is almost impossible to detect them.

Let us visualize what expresses how well the particle interacts. For example, the flow of electrons can be stopped by a rather thin sheet of steel, on the order of a few millimeters. This will happen because the electrons will immediately begin to interact with the particles of the steel sheet, they will sharply change their direction, emit photons, and thus lose energy rather quickly. With the flow of neutrinos, everything is not so, they can pass through the Earth with almost no interactions. That is why it is very difficult to find them.

So, most particles live a very short time, after which they decay. Particle decays are the most common reactions. As a result of decay, one particle breaks up into several others of smaller mass, and those, in turn, decay further. All decays obey certain rules - conservation laws. So, for example, as a result of decay, an electric charge, mass, spin, and a number of quantum numbers must be conserved. Some quantum numbers can change during the decay, but also subject to certain rules. It is the decay rules that tell us that the electron and proton are stable particles. They can no longer decay obeying the rules of decay, and therefore it is with them that the chains of decay end.

Here I would like to say a few words about the neutron. A free neutron also decays into a proton and an electron in about 15 minutes. However, when the neutron is in the atomic nucleus, this does not happen. This fact can be explained in various ways. For example, when an electron and an extra proton from a decayed neutron appear in the nucleus of an atom, the reverse reaction immediately occurs - one of the protons absorbs an electron and turns into a neutron. This picture is called dynamic equilibrium. It was observed in the universe at an early stage of its development shortly after the big bang.

In addition to decay reactions, there are also scattering reactions - when two or more particles interact simultaneously, and the result is one or more other particles. There are also absorption reactions, when one is obtained from two or more particles. All reactions occur as a result of a strong weak or electromagnetic interaction. Reactions due to the strong interaction are the fastest, the time of such a reaction can reach 10 to minus 20 seconds. The speed of reactions due to electromagnetic interaction is lower, here the time can be about 10 to minus 8 seconds. For weak interaction reactions, the time can reach tens of seconds and sometimes even years.

At the end of the story about particles, let's talk about quarks. Quarks are elementary particles that have an electric charge that is a multiple of a third of the charge of an electron and which cannot exist in a free state. Their interaction is arranged in such a way that they can live only as part of something. For example, a combination of three quarks of a certain type form a proton. Another combination gives a neutron. A total of 6 quarks are known. Their various combinations give us different particles, and although not all combinations of quarks are allowed by physical laws, there are quite a lot of particles made up of quarks.

Here the question may arise, how can a proton be called elementary if it consists of quarks. Very simply - the proton is elementary, since it cannot be split into its component parts - quarks. All particles that participate in the strong interaction are composed of quarks, and at the same time are elementary.

Understanding the interactions of elementary particles is very important for understanding the structure of the universe. Everything that happens to macro bodies is the result of the interaction of particles. It is the interaction of particles that describes the growth of trees on earth, reactions in the depths of stars, the radiation of neutron stars, and much more.

Probabilities and quantum mechanics

What is a neutron? What are its structure, properties and functions? Neutrons are the largest of the particles that make up atoms, which are building blocks all matter.

Atom structure

Neutrons are located in the nucleus - a dense region of the atom, also filled with protons (positively charged particles). These two elements are held together by a force called nuclear. Neutrons have a neutral charge. The positive charge of the proton is matched with the negative charge of the electron to create a neutral atom. Although neutrons in the nucleus do not affect the charge of an atom, they do have many properties that affect an atom, including the level of radioactivity.

Neutrons, isotopes and radioactivity

A particle that is in the nucleus of an atom - a neutron is 0.2% larger than a proton. Together they make up 99.99% of the total mass of the same element and can have a different number of neutrons. When scientists refer to atomic mass, they mean the average atomic mass. For example, carbon usually has 6 neutrons and 6 protons with an atomic mass of 12, but sometimes it occurs with an atomic mass of 13 (6 protons and 7 neutrons). Carbon with atomic number 14 also exists, but is rare. So, atomic mass for carbon is averaged to 12.011.

When atoms have different numbers of neutrons, they are called isotopes. Scientists have found ways to add these particles to the nucleus to create large isotopes. Now adding neutrons does not affect the charge of the atom, since they have no charge. However, they increase the radioactivity of the atom. This can lead to very unstable atoms that can discharge high levels energy.

What is a core?

In chemistry, the nucleus is the positively charged center of an atom, which is made up of protons and neutrons. The word "core" comes from the Latin nucleus, which is a form of the word meaning "nut" or "core". The term was coined in 1844 by Michael Faraday to describe the center of an atom. The sciences involved in the study of the nucleus, the study of its composition and characteristics, are called nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry.

Protons and neutrons are held together by the strong nuclear force. Electrons are attracted to the nucleus, but move so fast that their rotation is carried out at some distance from the center of the atom. The positive nuclear charge comes from protons, but what is a neutron? It is a particle that has no electrical charge. Almost all of the weight of an atom is contained in the nucleus, since protons and neutrons have much more mass than electrons. The number of protons in an atomic nucleus determines its identity as an element. The number of neutrons indicates which isotope of an element is an atom.

Atomic nucleus size

The nucleus is much smaller overall diameter atom, because the electrons can be moved away from the center. A hydrogen atom is 145,000 times larger than its nucleus, and a uranium atom is 23,000 times larger than its center. The hydrogen nucleus is the smallest because it consists of a single proton.

Location of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

The proton and neutrons are usually depicted as packed together and uniformly distributed over spheres. However, this is a simplification of the actual structure. Each nucleon (proton or neutron) can occupy a certain energy level and range of locations. While the nucleus may be spherical, it may also be pear-shaped, globular, or disc-shaped.

The nuclei of protons and neutrons are baryons, consisting of the smallest, called quarks. The attractive force has a very short range, so protons and neutrons must be very close to each other in order to be bound. This strong attraction overcomes the natural repulsion of charged protons.

Proton, neutron and electron

A powerful impetus in the development of such a science as nuclear physics was the discovery of the neutron (1932). Thanks for this should be an English physicist who was a student of Rutherford. What is a neutron? This is an unstable particle, which in a free state in just 15 minutes is able to decay into a proton, an electron and a neutrino, the so-called massless neutral particle.

The particle got its name due to the fact that it has no electric charge, it is neutral. Neutrons are extremely dense. In an isolated state, one neutron will have a mass of only 1.67·10 - 27, and if you take a teaspoon densely packed with neutrons, then the resulting piece of matter will weigh millions of tons.

The number of protons in the nucleus of an element is called the atomic number. This number gives each element its own unique identity. In the atoms of some elements, such as carbon, the number of protons in the nuclei is always the same, but the number of neutrons may vary. Atom given element with a certain number of neutrons in the nucleus is called an isotope.

Are single neutrons dangerous?

What is a neutron? This is a particle that, along with the proton, is included in However, sometimes they can exist on their own. When neutrons are outside the nuclei of atoms, they acquire a potential dangerous properties. When they move with high speed, they produce lethal radiation. Known for their ability to kill humans and animals, so-called neutron bombs have minimal impact on non-living physical structures.

Neutrons are a very important part of an atom. The high density of these particles, combined with their speed, gives them extraordinary destructive power and energy. As a consequence, they can alter or even tear apart the nuclei of atoms that strike. Although the neutron has a net neutral electrical charge, it is made up of charged components that cancel each other out with respect to charge.

The neutron in an atom is a tiny particle. Like protons, they're too small to see even with an electron microscope, but they're there because that's the only way to explain the behavior of atoms. Neutrons are very important for the stability of an atom, but outside of its atomic center they cannot exist for a long time and decay on average in only 885 seconds (about 15 minutes).

Whole material world, according to modern physics, is built from three elementary particles: proton, neutron and electron. In addition, according to science, there are other "elementary" particles of matter in the universe, some names of which are clearly more than the norm. At the same time, the function of these other "elementary particles" in the existence and evolution of the universe is not clear.

Consider another interpretation of elementary particles:

There is only one elementary particle of matter - the proton. All other "elementary particles", including the neutron and the electron, are only derivatives of the proton, and they play a very modest role in the evolution of the universe. Let us consider how such "elementary particles" are formed.

We examined in detail the structure of an elementary particle of matter in the article "". Briefly about the elementary particle:

An elementary particle of matter has the form of an elongated thread in space.
An elementary particle is capable of stretching. In the process of stretching, the density of matter inside an elementary particle falls.
The section of an elementary particle, where the density of matter falls by half, we called matter quantum .
In the process of motion, the elementary particle continuously absorbs (folds, ) energy.
Energy absorption point( annihilation point ) is at the tip of the motion vector of an elementary particle.
More precisely: on the tip of the active quantum of matter.
Absorbing energy, the elementary particle continuously increases the speed of its forward motion.
The elementary particle of matter is a dipole. In which the attractive forces are concentrated in the front part (in the direction of motion) of the particle, and the repulsive forces are concentrated in the rear part.

The property of being elementary in space theoretically means the possibility of reducing the density of matter to zero. And this, in turn, means the possibility of its mechanical rupture: the place of rupture of an elementary particle of matter can be represented as its section with zero density of matter.

In the process of annihilation (absorption of energy), an elementary particle, folding energy, continuously increases the speed of its translational motion in space.

The evolution of the galaxy, in the end, leads the elementary particles of matter to the moment when they become capable of exerting a tearing effect on each other. Elementary particles may not meet on parallel courses, when one particle approaches another slowly and smoothly, like a ship to a pier. They can meet in space and on opposite trajectories. Then a hard collision and, as a result, a break of an elementary particle is almost inevitable. They can get under a very powerful wave of perturbation of energy, which also leads to a rupture.

What can be the "debris" formed as a result of the rupture of an elementary particle of matter?

Let us consider the case when, as a result of external influence, from elementary particles of matter - a deuterium atom - decayed into a proton and a neutron.

The rupture of the pair structure does not occur at the place of their connection -. One of the two elementary particles of the pair structure breaks.

Proton and neutron differ from each other in their structure.

A proton is a slightly shortened (after a break) elementary particle,
neutron - a structure consisting of one full-fledged elementary particle and a "stump" - the front, light tip of the first particle.

A full-fledged elementary particle has a complete set - "N" matter quanta in its composition. The proton has "N-n" matter quanta. The neutron has "N + n" quanta.

The behavior of the proton is clear. Even having lost the final quanta of matter, he actively continues energy: the density of matter of his new final quantum always corresponds to the conditions of annihilation. This new final quantum of matter becomes a new point of annihilation. In general, the proton behaves as expected. The properties of protons are well described in any physics textbook. Only it will become a little lighter than its "full-fledged" counterpart - a full-fledged elementary particle of matter.

The neutron behaves differently. Consider first the structure of the neutron. It is its structure that explains its "strangeness".

Essentially, the neutron consists of two parts. The first part is a full-fledged elementary particle of matter with an annihilation point at its front end. The second part is a strongly shortened, light "stump" of the first elementary particle, left after the rupture of the double structure, and also having an annihilation point. These two parts are interconnected by annihilation points. Thus, the neutron has a double annihilation point.

The logic of thinking suggests that these two weighted parts of the neuron will behave differently. If the first part, which is a full-weight elementary particle, will, as expected, annihilate free energy and gradually accelerate in the space of the universe, then the second, lightweight part will begin to annihilate free energy at a higher rate.

The movement of an elementary particle of matter in space is carried out due to: the diffusing energy drags a particle that has fallen into its flows. It is clear that the less massive a particle of matter, the easier it is for energy flows to drag this particle along with it, the higher the speed of this particle. It is clear that what large quantity energy is simultaneously folded by an active quantum, the more powerful the flows of diffusing energy, the easier it is for these flows to drag a particle along with them. We get the dependency: The speed of the translational motion of a particle of matter in space is proportional to the mass of the matter of its active quantum and is inversely proportional to the total mass of the particle of matter :

The second, lightweight part of the neutron has a mass that is many times less than the mass of a full-weight elementary particle of matter. But the masses of their active quanta are equal. That is: they annihilate energy at the same rate. We get: the speed of the translational motion of the second part of the neutron will tend to increase rapidly, and it will begin to annihilate the energy faster. (In order not to introduce confusion, we will call the second, lightweight, part of the neutron an electron).

drawing of a neutron

A sharply increasing amount of energy annihilated simultaneously by an electron, while it is in the composition of a neutron, leads to the inertness of the neutron. The electron begins to annihilate more energy than its "neighbor" - a full-fledged elementary particle. It cannot yet break away from the common neutron annihilation point: powerful forces of attraction interfere. As a result, the electron begins to "eat" behind the common annihilation point.

At the same time, the electron begins to shift relative to its partner and its condensation free energy falls within the range of its neighbor's annihilation point. Which immediately begins to "eat" this thickening. Such a switching of an electron and a full-fledged particle to "internal" resources - the condensation of free energy behind the annihilation point - leads to a rapid drop in the forces of attraction and repulsion of the neutron.

The detachment of an electron from the general structure of a neutron occurs at the moment when the displacement of an electron relative to a full-weight elementary particle becomes large enough, the force tending to break the bonds of attraction of two annihilation points begins to exceed the force of attraction of these annihilation points, and the second, light part of the neutron (electron) quickly flies away away.

As a result, the neutron decays into two units: a full-fledged elementary particle - a proton and a light, shortened part of an elementary particle of matter - an electron.

According to modern data, the structure of a single neutron exists for about fifteen minutes. It then spontaneously decays into a proton and an electron. These fifteen minutes are the time of displacement of the electron relative to the common point of annihilation of the neutron and its struggle for its "freedom".

Let's sum up some results:

PROTON is a full-fledged elementary particle of matter, with one point of annihilation, or a heavy part of an elementary particle of matter, which remains after light quanta are separated from it.
NEUTRON is a double structure, having two annihilation points, and consisting of an elementary particle of matter, and a light, front part of another elementary particle of matter.
ELECTRON - the front part of the elementary particle of matter, which has one annihilation point, consisting of light quanta, formed as a result of the rupture of the elementary particle of matter.
The “proton-neutron” structure recognized by science is the DEUTERIUM ATOM, a structure of two elementary particles that has a double annihilation point.

An electron is not an independent elementary particle revolving around the nucleus of an atom.

The electron, as science considers it, is not in the composition of the atom.

And the nucleus of an atom, as such, does not exist in nature, just as there is no neutron in the form of an independent elementary particle of matter.

Both the electron and the neutron are derivatives of a pair structure of two elementary particles, after it is broken into two unequal parts as a result of external influence. In the composition of an atom of any chemical element, a proton and a neutron are a standard pair structure - two full-weight elementary particles of matter - two protons united by annihilation points.

In modern physics, there is an unshakable position that the proton and electron have equal but opposite electric charges. Allegedly, as a result of the interaction of these opposite charges, they are attracted to each other. Pretty logical explanation. It correctly reflects the mechanism of the phenomenon, but it is completely wrong - its essence.

Elementary particles have neither positive nor negative "electric" charges, just as there is no special form of matter in the form of an "electric field". Such "electricity" is an invention of man, caused by his inability to explain the existing state of affairs.

The “electrical” and electron to each other is actually created by energy flows directed to their annihilation points, as a result of their forward movement in the space of the universe. When they fall into the zone of action of the forces of attraction of each other. It really looks like an interaction of equal in magnitude but opposite electric charges.

"similar electric charges", for example: two protons or two electrons also has a different explanation. Repulsion occurs when one of the particles enters the zone of action of the repulsive forces of another particle - that is, the zone of energy condensation behind its annihilation point. We covered this in a previous article.

The interaction "proton - antiproton", "electron - positron" also has a different explanation. By such an interaction we understand the interaction of the spirit of protons or electrons when they move on a collision course. In this case, due to their interaction only by attraction (there is no repulsion, since the repulsion zone of each of them is behind them), their hard contact occurs. As a result, instead of two protons (electrons), we get completely different “elementary particles”, which are actually derivatives of the rigid interaction of these two protons (electrons).

The atomic structure of substances. Atom Model

Consider the structure of the atom.

Neutron and electron - as elementary particles of matter - do not exist. This is what we have discussed above. Accordingly: there is no nucleus of an atom and its electron shell. This error is a powerful obstacle to further research into the structure of matter.

The only elementary particle of matter is only the proton. An atom of any chemical element consists of paired structures of two elementary particles of matter (with the exception of isotopes, where more elementary particles are added to the paired structure).

For our further reasoning, it is necessary to consider the concept of a common annihilation point.

Elementary particles of matter interact with each other by annihilation points. This interaction leads to the formation of material structures: atoms, molecules, physical bodies… Which have a common atom annihilation point, a common molecule annihilation point…

GENERAL ANNIHILATION POINT - there is a union of two single annihilation points of elementary particles of matter into a common annihilation point of a pair structure, or common annihilation points of pair structures into a common annihilation point of an atom of a chemical element, or common annihilation points of atoms chemical elements– to the common molecular annihilation point .

The main thing here is that the union of particles of matter acts as attraction and repulsion as a single integral object. In the end, even any physical body can be represented as a common point of annihilation of this physical body: this body attracts other physical bodies to itself as a single, integral physical object, as a single point of annihilation. In this case, we get gravitational phenomena - attraction between physical bodies.

In the phase of the development cycle of the galaxy, when the forces of attraction become large enough, the unification of deuterium atoms into the structures of other atoms begins. The atoms of chemical elements are formed sequentially, as the speed of the translational motion of elementary particles of matter increases (read: the speed of the translational motion of the galaxy in the space of the universe increases) by attaching new pair structures of elementary particles of matter to the deuterium atom.

The unification occurs sequentially: in each new atom, one new pair structure of elementary particles of matter appears (less often, a single elementary particle). What gives us the combination of deuterium atoms into the structure of other atoms:

A common point of annihilation of the atom appears. This means that our atom will interact by attraction and repulsion with all other atoms and elementary particles as a single integral structure.
The space of the atom appears, inside which the density of free energy will many times exceed the density of free energy outside its space. A very high energy density behind a single annihilation point inside the space of an atom simply will not have time to drop strongly: the distances between elementary particles are too small. The average density of free energy in the intra-atomic space many times exceeds the value of the free energy density constant of the space of the universe.

In the construction of atoms of chemical elements, molecules chemical substances, physical bodies, the most important law of interaction of material particles and bodies is manifested:

The strength of intranuclear, chemical, electrical, gravitational bonds depends on the distances between annihilation points inside an atom, between common annihilation points of atoms inside molecules, between common annihilation points of molecules inside physical bodies, between physical bodies. The smaller the distance between common annihilation points, the more powerful attractive forces act between them.

It is clear that:

By intranuclear bonds we mean interactions between elementary particles and between pair structures within atoms.
By chemical bonds we mean interactions between atoms in the structure of molecules.
By electrical connections, we understand the interactions between molecules in the composition of physical bodies, liquids, gases.
By gravitational bonds we mean interactions between physical bodies.

The formation of the second chemical element - the helium atom - occurs when the galaxy accelerates in space to a sufficiently high speed. When the attractive force of two deuterium atoms reaches a large value, they approach at a distance that allows them to combine into a quadruple structure of the helium atom.

A further increase in the speed of the forward movement of the galaxy leads to the formation of atoms of the subsequent (according to the periodic table) chemical elements. At the same time: the genesis of atoms of each chemical element corresponds to its own, strictly defined speed of the progressive movement of the galaxy in the space of the universe. Let's call her the standard rate of formation of an atom of a chemical element .

The helium atom is the second atom after hydrogen to form in the galaxy. Then, as the speed of the forward movement of the galaxy increases, the next atom of deuterium breaks through to the helium atom. This means that the speed of the forward motion of the galaxy has reached the standard rate of formation of a lithium atom. Then it will reach the standard rate of formation of an atom of beryllium, carbon ..., and so on, according to the periodic table.

atom model

In the above diagram, we can see that:

Each period in the atom is a ring of paired structures.
The center of the atom is always occupied by the quadruple structure of the helium atom.
All paired structures of the same period are located strictly in the same plane.
The distances between periods are much larger than the distances between pair structures within one period.

Of course, this is a very simplified scheme, and it does not reflect all the realities of the construction of atoms. For example: each new pair structure, joining an atom, displaces the rest of the pair structures of the period to which it is attached.

We get the principle of constructing a period in the form of a ring around the geometric center of the atom:

the period structure is built in one plane. This is facilitated by the general vector of translational motion of all elementary particles of the galaxy.
pair structures of the same period are built around the geometric center of the atom at an equal distance.
the atom around which a new period is built behaves towards this new period as a single complete system.

So we get the most important regularity in the construction of atoms of chemical elements:

REGULARITY OF A STRICTLY DETERMINATED NUMBER OF PAIR STRUCTURES: simultaneously, at a certain distance from the geometric center of the common point of annihilation of an atom, only a certain number of pair structures of elementary particles of matter can be located.

That is: in the second, third periods of the periodic table - eight elements each, in the fourth, fifth - eighteen, in the sixth, seventh - thirty-two. The increasing diameter of the atom allows the number of paired structures to increase in each subsequent period.

It is clear that this pattern determines the principle of periodicity in the construction of atoms of chemical elements, discovered by D.I. Mendeleev.

Each period inside the atom of a chemical element behaves in relation to it as a single integral system. This is determined by jumps in the distances between periods: much larger than the distances between pair structures within a period.

An atom with an incomplete period exhibits chemical activity in accordance with the above regularity. Since there is an imbalance of the forces of attraction and repulsion of the atom in favor of the forces of attraction. But with the addition of the last pair structure, the imbalance disappears, the new period takes the form right circle- becomes a single, integral, complete system. And we get an atom of an inert gas.

The most important pattern of constructing the structure of an atom is: atom has a plane-cascadestructure . Something like a chandelier.

pair structures of the same period should be located in the same plane perpendicular to the vector of the translational motion of the atom.
at the same time, the periods in the atom must cascade.

This explains why in the second and third periods (as well as in the fourth - fifth, sixth - seventh) the same number of paired structures (see the figure below). Such a structure of an atom is a consequence of the distribution of forces of attraction and repulsion of an elementary particle: attractive forces act in the front (in the direction of motion) hemisphere of the particle, repulsive forces - in the rear hemisphere.

Otherwise, free energy concentrations behind the annihilation points of some pair structures fall into the zone of attraction of the annihilation points of other pair structures, and the atom will inevitably fall apart.

Below we see a schematic volumetric image of the argon atom

argon atom model

In the figure below, we can see a “section”, a “side view” of two periods of an atom - the second and third:

This is exactly how the paired structures should be oriented, relative to the center of the atom, in periods with an equal number of paired structures (the second - the third, the fourth - the fifth, the sixth - the seventh).

The amount of energy in the condensation behind the annihilation point of an elementary particle is continuously growing. This becomes clear from the formula:

E 1 ~m(C+W)/2

E 2 ~m(C–W)/2

ΔE \u003d E 1 -E 2 \u003d m (C + W) / 2 - m (C - W) / 2

∆E~W×m

where:

E 1 is the amount of free energy rolled up (absorbed) by the annihilation point from the front hemisphere of motion.

E 2 is the amount of free energy of the folded (absorbed) annihilation point from the rear hemisphere of motion.

ΔЕ is the difference between the amount of free energy rolled up (absorbed) from the front and rear hemispheres of the movement of an elementary particle.

W is the speed of movement of an elementary particle.

Here we see a continuous increase in the mass of energy condensation behind the annihilation point of a moving particle, as the speed of its forward motion increases.

In the structure of the atom, this will manifest itself in the fact that the energy density behind the structure of each subsequent atom will increase in geometric progression. Annihilation points hold each other with their force of attraction with an “iron grip”. At the same time, the growing repulsive force will increasingly deflect the pair structures of the atom from each other. So we get a flat - cascade construction of an atom.

The atom, in shape, should resemble the shape of a bowl, where the "bottom" is the structure of the helium atom. And the "edges" of the bowl is the last period. Places of "bends of the bowl": the second - the third, the fourth - the fifth, the sixth - the seventh periods. These "bends" make it possible to form different periods with an equal number of paired structures

helium atom model

It is the flat - cascade structure of the atom and the ring arrangement of pair structures in it that determine the periodicity and row construction periodic system chemical elements of Mendeleev, the frequency of manifestation of similar chemical properties atoms in one row of the periodic table.

Plane - cascade structure of the atom gives the appearance of a single space of the atom with a high density of free energy.

All pair structures of an atom are oriented in the direction of the center of the atom (more precisely: in the direction of a point located on the geometric axis of the atom, in the direction of the atom's movement).
All individual annihilation points are located along the rings of periods inside the atom.
All individual free energy clusters are located behind their annihilation points.

The result: a single high-density free energy concentration, the boundaries of which are the boundaries of the atom. These boundaries, as we understand, are the boundaries of the action of forces known in science as the Yukawa forces.

The plane-cascade structure of the atom gives a redistribution of the zones of forces of attraction and repulsion in a certain way. We already observe the redistribution of zones of forces of attraction and repulsion in the paired structure:

The zone of action of the repulsive forces of the pair structure increases due to the zone of action of the forces of its attraction (compared to single elementary particles). The zone of action of attractive forces decreases accordingly. (The zone of action of the force of attraction decreases, but not the force itself). The flat-cascade structure of the atom gives us an even greater increase in the zone of action of the repulsive forces of the atom.

With each new period, the zone of action of the repulsive forces tends to form a full ball.
The zone of action of the forces of attraction will be an ever-decreasing cone in diameter

In the construction of a new period of the atom, one more regularity can be traced: all pair structures of one period are located strictly symmetrically relative to the geometric center of the atom, regardless of the number of pair structures in the period.

Each new pair structure, joining, changes the location of all other pair structures of the period so that the distances between them in the period are always equal to each other. These distances decrease with the addition of the next pair structure. Incomplete outer period an atom of a chemical element makes it chemically active.

The distances between periods, which are much larger than the distances between paired particles within a period, make the periods relatively independent of each other.

Each period of the atom is related to all other periods and to the whole atom as an independent whole structure.

This determines that the chemical activity of the atom is almost 100% determined only by the last period of the atom. The completely filled last period gives us the maximum filled zone of the repulsive forces of the atom. The chemical activity of an atom is almost zero. An atom, like a ball, pushes other atoms away from itself. We see gas here. And not just a gas, but an inert gas.

The addition of the first pair structure of the new period changes this idyllic picture. The distribution of zones of action of the forces of repulsion and attraction changes in favor of the forces of attraction. The atom becomes chemically active. This is an atom alkali metal.

With the addition of each next pair structure, the balance of the zones of distribution of the forces of attraction and repulsion of the atom changes: the zone of repulsive forces increases, the zone of forces of attraction decreases. And each next atom becomes a little less metal and a little more non-metal.

The flat-cascade form of atoms, the redistribution of the zones of action of the forces of attraction and repulsion gives us the following: An atom of a chemical element, meeting with another atom even on a collision course, without fail falls into the zone of action of the forces of repulsion of this atom. And it does not destroy itself and does not destroy this other atom.

All this leads us to a remarkable result: the atoms of chemical elements, entering into compounds with each other, form three-dimensional structures of molecules. In contrast to the flat - cascade structure of atoms. A molecule is a stable three-dimensional structure of atoms.

Consider the energy flows inside atoms and molecules.

First of all, we note that an elementary particle will absorb energy in cycles. That is: in the first half of the cycle, the elementary particle absorbs energy from the nearest space. A void is formed here - a space without free energy.

In the second half of the cycle: energies from a more distant environment will immediately begin to fill the resulting void. That is, in space there will be energy flows directed to the point of annihilation. The particle receives a positive momentum of translational motion. BUT bound energy inside the particle will begin to redistribute its density.

What are we interested in here?

Since the annihilation cycle is divided into two phases: the phase of energy absorption and the phase of energy movement (filling the void), then average speed energy flows in the region of the annihilation point will decrease, roughly speaking, by a factor of two.

And what is extremely important:

In the construction of atoms, molecules, physical bodies, a very important regularity is manifested: the stability of all material structures, such as: paired structures - deuterium atoms, individual periods around atoms, atoms, molecules, physical bodies is ensured by the strict orderliness of their annihilation processes.

Consider this.

Energy flows generated by a pair structure. In a pair structure, elementary particles annihilate energy synchronously. Otherwise, the elementary particles would "eat up" the concentration of energy behind each other's annihilation point. We obtain clear wave characteristics of the pair structure. In addition, we remind you that due to the cyclical nature of annihilation processes, the average rate of energy flows here falls by half.
Energy flows within an atom. The principle is the same: all paired structures of the same period must annihilate energy synchronously - in synchronous cycles. Similarly: the processes of annihilation within the atom must be synchronized between periods. Any asynchrony leads to the destruction of the atom. Here the synchronicity may vary slightly. It can be assumed that periods in an atom annihilate energy sequentially, one after another, in a wave.
Energy flows inside a molecule, a physical body. The distances between atoms in the structure of a molecule are many times greater than the distances between periods inside an atom. In addition, the molecule has a bulk structure. Just like any physical body, it has a three-dimensional structure. It is clear that the synchronism of the annihilation processes here must be consistent. Directed from the periphery to the center, or vice versa: from the center to the periphery - count as you like.

The principle of synchronicity gives us two more regularities:

The speed of energy flows inside atoms, molecules, physical bodies is much less than the speed constant of energy movement in the space of the universe. This pattern will help us understand (in article #7) the processes of electricity.
The larger the structure we see (successively: elementary particle, atom, molecule, physical body), the greater the wavelength in its wave characteristics we will observe. This also applies to physical bodies: the greater the mass of a physical body, the greater the wavelength it has.

Page 1

The neutron charge is zero. Consequently, neutrons do not play a role in the magnitude of the charge of the nucleus of an atom. The serial number of chromium is equal to the same value.

Proton charge qp e Neutron charge is equal to zero.

It is easy to see that in this case the charge of the neutron is zero, and that of the proton is 1, as expected. All the baryons included in two families are obtained - the eight and the ten. Mesons are made up of a quark and an antiquark. The bar denotes antiquarks; their electric charge differs in sign from that of the corresponding quark. A strange quark does not enter into a pi-meson, pi-mesons, as we have already said, are particles with strangeness and spin equal to zero.

Since the charge of the proton is equal to the charge of the electron and the charge of the neutron is equal to the bullet, then if the strong interaction is turned off, the interaction of the proton with electromagnetic field And it will be the usual interaction of the Dirac particle - Yp / V. The neutron would have no electromagnetic interaction.

Designations: 67 - charge difference between electron and proton; q is the neutron charge; qg is the absolute value of the electron charge.

The nucleus consists of positively charged elementary particles - protons and neutrons that do not carry a charge.

The basis of modern ideas about the structure of matter is the statement about the existence of atoms of matter, consisting of positively charged protons and chargeless neutrons, forming a positively charged nucleus, and negatively charged electrons rotating around the nucleus. The energy levels of electrons, according to this theory, are discrete in nature, and the loss or acquisition of some additional energy by them is considered as a transition from one allowed energy level to another. At the same time, the discrete nature of the energy electronic levels becomes the cause of the same discrete absorption or emission of energy by the electron during the transition from one energy level to another.

We assumed that the charge of an atom or molecule is completely determined by the scalar sum q Z (q Nqn, where Z is the number of electron-proton pairs, (q qp - qe is the difference in the charges of the electron and proton, N is the number of neutrons, and qn is the charge of the neutron.

The nuclear charge is determined only by the number of protons Z, and its mass number A coincides with the total number of protons and neutrons. Since the charge of the neutron is zero, there is no electrical interaction according to the Coulomb law between two neutrons, and also between a proton and a neutron. At the same time, an electrical repulsive force acts between the two protons.

Further, within the limits of measurement accuracy, not a single collision process has ever been registered, in which the charge conservation law would not be observed. For example, the inflexibility of neutrons in homogeneous electric fields allows us to consider the neutron charge as zero accurate to 1 (H7 electron charge.

We have already said that the difference between the magnetic moment of a proton and one nuclear magneton is an amazing result. Even more surprising (It seems that there is a magnetic moment for a neutron without a charge.

It is easy to see that these forces are not reduced to any of the types of forces considered in the previous parts of the physics course. Indeed, if we assume, for example, that between nucleons in nuclei there are gravitational forces, then it is easy to calculate from the known masses of the proton and neutron that the binding energy per particle will be negligible - it will be 1036 times less than that observed experimentally. The assumption about the electric nature of nuclear forces also disappears. Indeed, in this case it is impossible to imagine a stable nucleus consisting of a single charged proton and no charge of a neutron.

The strong bond that exists between nucleons in the nucleus indicates the presence in atomic nuclei of special, so-called nuclear forces. It is easy to see that these forces are not reduced to any of the types of forces considered in the previous parts of the physics course. Indeed, if we assume, for example, that gravitational forces act between nucleons in nuclei, then it is easy to calculate from the known masses of the proton and neutron that the binding energy per particle will be negligible - it will be 1038 times less than that observed experimentally. The assumption about the electric nature of nuclear forces also disappears. Indeed, in this case it is impossible to imagine a stable nucleus consisting of a single charged proton and no charge of a neutron.