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Spelling and punctuation rules

Introduction

Spelling norms

Phonemic principle of Russian spelling

From the history of Russian spelling

Punctuation norms

Punctuation of ancient monuments of the XI - XIV centuries

Russian punctuation of the 15th-17th centuries

Bibliography

Introduction

Spelling norms These are the rules for naming words in writing. They include the rules for designating sounds with letters, the rules for continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling of words, the rules for using uppercase (capital) letters and graphic abbreviations. Punctuation norms determine the use of punctuation marks.

The Russian language unites the nation and at the same time is an integral and important part of our national culture, reflecting the history of the people and their spiritual quest. Modern Russianists, and in particular, experts in the culture of speech, rightly say that the Russian language, reflecting our national virtues, no less clearly shows all our troubles. The problem of the correctness of Russian speech, compliance with the norms of the literary language is widely discussed in newspapers and magazines, in radio programs. Deviations from the norms in the public speech of politicians, radio and television announcers, a decrease in the general level of literacy of the population, and especially young people, are condemned. At the same time, there is not a single area of ​​human knowledge, human activity, for which a bad, confusing, illiterate professional or everyday speech of a performer would be a boon. A graduate of any university - technical or humanitarian, must be literate, have a culture of speech.

The culture of speech is, firstly, the possession of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written form. Allows in any situation of communication to use language tools with maximum effect while observing the ethics of communication. Secondly, this is the area of ​​linguistics, which is designed to solve the problems of speech norms, to develop recommendations for the skillful use of the language. Speech normativity is the observance in speech of the current norms of stress, pronunciation, word usage, style, morphology, word formation, syntax. The questions of the culture of speech were dealt with by M.V. Lomonosov, A.Kh. Vostokov, A.A. Potebnya, G.O. Vinokur, A.M. Peshkovsky, L.V. Shchebra, D.N. Ushakov, V.V. Vinogradov, R.I. Avanesov, S.I. Ozhegov.

Based on the foregoing, the purpose of this essay is to study the problem of the norms of the Russian language, and in particular, orthoepic and spelling. To study this issue, first of all, it is necessary to define the concept of a language norm, identify its main features, indicate the sources of the norms of the modern Russian language. Secondly, it is necessary to determine what is the subject of study of orthoepy and spelling, what are the historical roots of this issue. To reveal the topic in the abstract, the works of S.I. Ozhegova, I.B. Golub, D.E. Rosenthal, N.S. Valgina, R.I. Avanesova and others, as well as materials from periodicals.

Spelling norms

Spelling (from the Greek orthos direct, correct and grapho I write) is an applied section of linguistics that determines the ways of conveying words in writing using alphabetic and non-alphabetic (hyphens, spaces, dashes) graphic symbols, and also establishes spelling rules. Spelling consists of several sections:

writing significant parts of a word (morphemes) - roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings, that is, the designation of the sound composition of words with letters where it is not defined by graphics;

continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings;

use of capital letters and lowercase letters;

transfer rules;

rules for graphic abbreviations.

Phonemic principle of Russian spelling

Spelling is based on certain principles: phonemic, phonetic, traditional and differentiating. The phonemic principle is that phonetically positional changes are not reflected in the letter - reduction of vowels, stunning, voicing, softening of consonants. At the same time, vowels are written as if under stress, and consonants - as in a strong position, for example, positions before a vowel. With the phonetic principle of spelling, the letter indicates not a phoneme, but a sound. For example, the spelling of prefixes ending in [з] obeys the phonetic principle in Russian. They are written either with the letter c, or with the letter z, depending on the quality of the next consonant: to break - to split. The essence of the differentiating principle is to distinguish orthographically that which does not differ phonetically. At the same time, the letters are associated directly with the meaning: set on fire (ch.) - arson (n.). The traditional principle governs the spelling of unchecked vowels and consonants (dog, pharmacy).

In the Russian spelling system, the main, leading principle is phonemic. It is on it that the basic spelling rules are built, while other principles are used partially.

Continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling regulated by the traditional principle, taking into account the morphological independence of units. Separate words are written mainly separately, except for negative and indefinite pronouns with prepositions (no one) and some adverbs (in an embrace), parts of words - together or with a hyphen (cf .: in my opinion and in my opinion).

Use of uppercase and lowercase letters is regulated by the lexico-syntactic rule: proper names and denominations are written with a capital letter (Moscow State University, Moscow State University), as well as the first word at the beginning of each sentence. The rest of the words are capitalized.

Word hyphenation rules from one line to another: when transferring, first of all, the syllabic division of the word is taken into account, and then its morphemic structure: war, smash, and not * war, * smash. One letter of the word is not transferred or left on the line. Identical consonants in the root of the word are separated during transfer: kas-sa.

From the history of Russian spelling

Consider in connection with this issue a section of the book by S.I. Ozhegov "On streamlining Russian spelling", built on examples. "Russian Grammar", published by the Russian Academy in 1802, clarified and detailed the Lomonosov spelling rules and thus summed up the entire work of the 18th century. ordering spelling. But in the future, the fluctuations increase, new ones are added to the old ones. Work of acad. Ya.K. Grot "Controversial issues of Russian spelling from Peter the Great to the present", published in 1873, very fully revealed the causes and cases of inconsistency in spelling. His manual "Russian Spelling" significantly contributed to the streamlining of orthography and served spelling practice for half a century. But the leadership of Ya.K. Grotto, under the conditions of that time, could not solve many pressing issues of orthographic practice. Only the reform of 1917-1918, carried out by the Soviet government, eliminated all vestigial, outdated rules, and Russian spelling became much more harmonious and better. But there were still many unresolved issues, many spelling fluctuations continued to exist, and spelling aids published in the early years of the revolution often contradicted each other, which complicated spelling practice.

What explains the presence and occurrence of oscillations? Is it possible to avoid them in the future? As the history of orthography shows, a greater or lesser number of different spellings always remained after each successive settlement. The thing is that spelling does not keep pace with the development of the language. The source of the appearance of mass fluctuations is the development of the vocabulary of the language, especially in the 19th and 20th centuries.

The development of vocabulary at the expense of the internal means of the literary language introduced a lot of contradictions into literary practice. So, for example, one of the most disastrous phenomena in modern orthography is the continuous or separate spelling of adverbs formed from combinations of a preposition with a noun. This type of adverb formation lives on in modern language. Reflecting the needs of communication, adverbs arise constantly. Before the revolution, the combination in a draw was written separately, but after the revolution, with the development of sports, chess art, it became terminological, and now everyone understands its continuous spelling in a draw. During the Great Patriotic War, a military expression appeared on the pages of our press on the move (attack, storm, etc.). Not knowing how to treat it, the same newspapers wrote it both separately (on the go) and together (on the go). However, recently they began to write separately - on the move, given the presence of parallel formations with the noun move (for example, rebuilding on the move, etc.).

Or, for example, the category of complex adjectives in the modern language is a lively and productive category. They arise constantly, and with the same constancy, fluctuations are found in continuous writing or through a dash. Military training, military field, bakery, on the one hand, and liable for military service, bakery, on the other, are not brought under the existing rules for writing.

Fluctuations in the spelling of adverbs, compound adjectives, and other whole categories of words are especially noticeable in our spelling practice. Here it is necessary to create such clear, objectively accessible rules that could, to a certain extent, indicate the ways for writing newly formed words.

The history of orthography shows that spelling never develops by breaking the existing system. Historically expedient and socially justified is the internal improvement of spelling, taking into account the laws of language development with the elimination of remnant elements, as was the case, for example, in 1917.

Survival elements that contradict the phonetic and morphological system of the modern Russian language have been eliminated. The main task of improving the culture of written speech is not a reform, but the streamlining of spelling.

Further history of Russian writing in the XX century. is a history of attempts to further improve it. In 1956, the final version was adopted - the Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation, which are in force to this day.

Today, the need to make changes to the spelling and punctuation norms, according to linguists, is due to the fact that the current “Code of Rules”, approved in 1956, is pretty outdated. During this time, the language has acquired many neologisms for which there are no rules; the spelling of a number of words in practice has changed significantly. In the publication of spelling dictionaries and textbooks on the Russian language, confusion has begun: dictionaries are being republished under the guise of “new” that are obviously outdated and, along with this, modern ones. Today there are two spelling dictionaries (N.V. Solovieva and V.V. Lopatina), each of which is written: "Russian Academy of Sciences." Both dictionaries are in conflict with the rules of the 56th year that have not been canceled so far. Meanwhile, "... in most major European countries there is a standard representation of the national language in the form of a set of dictionaries (DUDEN, Standartwerk zur deutchen Sprache - in Germany, Standart Reference Books - in the UK, etc.). This series of reference books is designed for mass reader and is published in cheap mass circulation. This is how the mandatory, state-controlled presentation of the ideological and cultural minimum, which is recommended to every citizen. There are no equivalent language standards of the state language in the Russian Federation. In addition, the position of Russian linguists has not been consolidated"

Chairman of the Spelling Commission V.V. Lopatin emphasized that the spelling reform under discussion cannot be called a reform of the Russian language, since it does not provide for any cardinal changes in the rules: we are talking only about those 23 norms that life itself has already changed. As an example, the scientist cited the spelling of compound words. So, the word "state-monopoly" according to the current rules should be written together. It is also proposed to unify the unreasonably introduced various norms (for example, the spelling of the prefix floor- in the words half past ten, half past twelve). Thus, work on improving spelling continues in our time.

Punctuation norms

The theory of punctuation in the works of scientists of historical and modern linguistics. The history of Russian punctuation has not been fully and deeply studied. A statement made by Shapiro back in 1955 is still relevant today: “Russian punctuation has not yet been subjected to scientific research. As a system of rules, it was covered mainly in works on grammar (M.V. Lomonosov, A.A. Barsova, A.Kh. Vostokova, F.I. Buslaeva, etc.). Special works devoted to punctuation are rare... We also do not have a history of Russian punctuation” (Shapiro, 1955, 3). There are only a few studies that address the issue of the emergence and development of Russian punctuation. Brief outline of the history of punctuation before early XVIII century we find in the article by I.I. Sreznevsky "On Russian spelling". V. Klassovsky in his work "Punctuation marks in the five most important languages". An attempt to determine the development of punctuation at its origins is made by S.A. Bulich in the article "Interpuncture". Statements about the origin and development of punctuation are in the work of A. Gusev "Punctuation marks (punctuation) in connection with a brief doctrine of the sentence and other signs in the Russian written language." L.V. Shcherba in the article "Punctuation" expressed some thoughts about the use of punctuation marks in ancient Russian writing. But the most valuable among the works on the history of punctuation are the scientific works of S.I. Abakumov. His research "Punctuation in the monuments of Russian writing of the XI-XVII centuries." is an essay on the history of Russian punctuation. The works of K.I. Belova: "From the history of Russian punctuation of the 16th century", which examines the punctuation of "Domostroy", and "From the history of Russian punctuation of the 17th century", which analyzes the use of punctuation marks in the "Cathedral Code of 1649". However, the listed works do not give a sufficient idea of ​​the development of Russian punctuation and do not fully reflect the features of the use of punctuation marks. It is traditionally accepted that the basis of punctuation is syntax. S.K. Bulich wrote: “Interpuncture makes the syntactic structure of speech clear, highlighting individual sentences and parts of sentences” (Bulich 1894, 268]. N.I. Grech adhered to the grammatical principle in determining the main function of signs: “Punctuation marks are used in writing to show grammatical connection or differences between sentences and their parts and to distinguish sentences by expressing them "(Grech, 1827, 512). S.I. Abakumov defended the semantic purpose of punctuation: "The main purpose of punctuation is to indicate the division of speech into parts that are important for expression of thought in writing "(Abakumov 1950, 5). A. A. Vostokov, I. I. Davydov, A. M. Peshkovsky believed that the main purpose of punctuation is to convey the intonational side of speech. Modern linguistic science proceeds from the structural-semantic principle She considers it necessary to take into account semantic and grammatical features when using punctuation marks.The semantic purpose of punctuation marks, S. AND. Abakumov, in many cases can be understood with sufficient clarity only by understanding the grammatical structure of the language. The question of the purpose of punctuation, its principles, was also reflected in the works of Russian grammarians of the 16th-18th centuries. During this period, the foundations of Russian punctuation began to take shape. However, almost before the invention of printing, we do not find a certain punctuation in the samples of ancient writing, although some of its rudiments were observed at the time of Aristotle in the Greek written language. So, for example, a dot at the top of the letter corresponded to the current point, against the middle of the letter - a colon, and at the bottom of the letter - a comma. However, the use of a dot as a thought-separating sign was not considered mandatory. Unlike spelling, punctuation is more international, so it should be considered as the result of a long interaction of the punctuation features of the Russian language with the features of other languages ​​of the world. The first to use punctuation marks was Aristophanes of Byzantium. We find clear allusions to punctuation marks in Aristotle: the dot at the bottom of the letter (A.) corresponded to the current comma, against the letter (A) - a colon, and against the top (A) - a point. And at the beginning of the 1st c. BC e. the system of punctuation marks was already realized theoretically and set forth by the Greek grammarian Dionysius of Thrace in the book "Grammatical Art". He distinguished three punctuation marks: 1) a dot - a sign of a completed thought, 2) a middle dot - a sign of rest, 3) a small dot - a sign of a thought not yet completed, but in need of continuation. Thus, the point was reborn before all the signs. In the middle of the 1st century BC. punctuation is influenced by the dominant role of Roman science, but no fundamentally new punctuation has been created. Nevertheless, some differences in Greek and Latin punctuation existed, and as a result, it is customary in the history of punctuation to distinguish between Greek and Latin punctuation traditions. Later, these ^ differences will be reflected in Western European punctuation systems. By the 10th century, that is, by the time the Slavic Cyrillic script was invented, the following signs were already in use in Greek and Latin manuscripts: 1) cross (+), 2) various combinations of dots (. . . . ~ : ~), 3) dot (.), 4) semicolon (; or .,), 5) two semicolons (,), 6) comma (,), 7) group of commas (,). Russian manuscripts did not know the division of phrases into words. Points were placed in the intervals between undivided segments of the text. In the middle of a speech, only one punctuation mark was used - a period, and then ¦ accidentally, inappropriately; as a final sign they used four dots on a cross (.) or another similar combination of signs, and then a line.

Punctuation of ancient monuments of the XI - XIV centuries

In the development of punctuation in the Church Slavonic language, we notice three periods: the first covers manuscripts from the 11th century to the introduction of book printing in Russia; the second period - early printed books before the correction of the text of the Holy Scriptures in the patriarchate of Nikon; the third period - books of the corrected and now used text. In the first period, the following punctuation marks were used: 1) a dot (.), 2) a straight cross (+), 3) a quarter (:), 4) a simple colon (:), 5) a colon with an intermediate curve (:). In most of the manuscripts of this period, words were written almost without gaps, sometimes scribes put a dot or a straight cross between words, but they were not guided by any punctuation rules, and the use of the above characters was vague and confusing. A special place in the history of Russian punctuation is occupied by the graphic side of the Ostromirov Gospel. “Monuments of writing, the linguistic study of which already has a rather long tradition, remain one of the most important sources for studying the history of the Russian language in all its variety of varieties” (Kolosov, 1991, 3). This is one of the few ancient monuments where the line, in addition to the dot, is also divided by other signs - a cross and a vertical wavy line - a serpent. The punctuation marks of the Ostromirov Gospel, with a single exception, designate either the boundaries of sentences or the boundaries of actual components within sentences, and the crosses are clearly contrasted in this respect with dots and serpents. A characteristic feature of the vast majority of Russian monuments of the XI - XIV centuries. is the lack of opposition between intraphrasal and interphrasal punctuation. Even if some character is used inside a paragraph in addition to the usual point, then its use from the use of a point is no different.

Russian punctuation of the 15th-17th centuries

In early printed books, when words were already separated from each other, the graphic arsenal of Russian punctuation was significantly enriched: in addition to the dot, a comma, semicolon, and colon began to be used to divide a line. There are different types of dots: the term - a dot in the middle of the line - and the dot itself, which was placed at the bottom, and the dots could be of different sizes and colors. However, having learned the external difference in signs, scribes sometimes did not know what to do with this difference, therefore, not only in the XIV-XV, but also in the XVI-XVII centuries. there are texts with fuzzy opposition of signs not only according to the drawing, but also according to their purpose. The traditions of Cyrillic writing in the use of various punctuation marks were dominant in Russia until the 16th century. In the magnificent Four Gospels of 1537. it was customary to sharply separate expressions by putting thick dots or commas between them, and each expression was written completely together. Since the 16th century, the principle of separate writing of words has been affirmed in handwritten editions, and later the use of punctuation marks between words, sentences and other syntactic constructions. This custom of writing becomes a tradition, which was supported by a new way of creating a manuscript - typography. The first works on grammar appear, in which some attention is paid to punctuation. These articles were published by Yagich in the work "Discourse of antiquity on the Church Slavonic language". (Research on the Russian language, vol. 1. Sat., 1885-1895). A common feature of all articles was their anonymity, and most often the authors could not be identified. In some articles, punctuation marks were only named, in others their use was determined. As S.I. Abakumov, the statements about punctuation set forth in the works of Russian scribes of the 16th-17th centuries undoubtedly relied on the Greek punctuation tradition, but at the same time they were not a cast from any Greek original: they were created on Russian soil, on the basis of the existing punctuation practice. Of particular note is the work of Maxim the Greek “On the Grammar of Enoch Maxim the Greek, the work of the Holy Mountaineer was announced for subtlety.” In it, punctuation issues are given a relatively small place. M. Grek considered the comma to be the main sign of Russian writing and called it hypodiastole. In his opinion, the comma indicates the incompleteness of the action and allows the speaker to pause while reading. The next punctuation mark is a dot, which marked the end of the statement. The third punctuation mark is hypodiastole with a period, which the Greek recommends to indicate a question. Thus, M. Grek emphasizes only the intonation value in the use of punctuation marks. At the same time, he tries to concretize their use, distinguishing between the functions of a comma and a semicolon. Statements about punctuation in the works of Russian scribes were based on Greek punctuation, but the system of punctuation means was formed on Russian soil, the traditions of which were shaped by practice. In 1563, in The first Russian printing house appeared in Moscow, and in 1564 the first printed book appeared in Russia - "Apostle", which already used punctuation marks - a dot and a comma. A whole independent sentence was separated by a dot, and a comma served to separate its parts. The development of book printing pointed to the need for stability of writing and required a significant improvement in the system of Russian punctuation.The first printed Slavonic Grammar was published in Lvov in 1591 under the title ADELFOTN? her rules for the use of different punctuation marks - subtle, as Zizanius called them. In addition to the dot and comma, the term (small dot) and the double line were adopted in almost the same meaning as the semicolon in modern Russian. At the end of a sentence, a question mark - a subframe - began to be used. Zizaniy himself in his book used only some of the signs he proposed. Instead of the deadline (small dot), a dot was constantly put. The double line was used only once. It seems that the author did not clearly understand the function of this sign, all the more he could not distinguish between the use of terms and double terms. A more complete correspondence between the theoretical provisions and their practical application is observed in the formulation of the underframe and the point. The underframe was consistently used by L. Zizaniy at the end of an interrogative sentence. According to S.K. Bulich, the entire chapter "On Points" was written by L. Zizaniy under the influence of those grammatical articles that appeared in Russia in the 16th century and were compiled by unknown authors. Indeed, in the grammar of L. Zizania, all those punctuation marks that are found in pre-existing grammars are named. However, his merit is that he tried to give a more detailed explanation of all existing punctuation marks. According to K.I. Belova, in the definition of punctuation marks, L. Zizaniy proceeds from their syntactic purpose. Using the definition of a comma as an example, K. I. Belov writes: “Here, a certain syntactic meaning of a comma is emphasized as a sign that defines a part of a statement that expresses a complete meaning. This principle, to one degree or another, will be traced in the future, when characterizing other punctuation marks ”(Belov, 1959, 4). T.I. does not agree with this point of view. Gaevskaya, who states: “In the definition of a comma, as well as other signs, L. Zizaniy proceeds primarily from the semantic purpose of punctuation. The syntactic functions of punctuation marks could not be substantiated theoretically, if only because syntax as a section of grammar had not yet been developed at that time. It is not represented in any way in the grammar of L. Zizania. That is why the question of the basics of punctuation, if approached from the point of view of the modern Russian language, was solved by L. Zizaniy only one-sidedly” (Gaevskaya, 1973, 12). In general, the work of L. Zizania is an attempt to systematize the information about punctuation marks that had accumulated by the end of the 16th century, the desire to determine the place of each character in the general system of punctuation. And in 1619 another, even more important work was printed in the Vilna Fraternal Printing House - "Grammar" by Melety Smotrytsky. which has been used as a teaching aid. It represented a deeper experience of the grammatical development of the Russian language, in contrast to the grammar of L. Zizania. Of course, the external schemes containing the material are copied from the Greek grammar of Laskaris, but it is important that the section on punctuation is much wider than that of Zizanius. For the first time, a definition of the concept of punctuation marks appears: “There are speeches / inscriptions of different banners in the line of separation” (M. Smotrytsky, 1619, 5). Thus, Smotrytsky regarded punctuation marks as a means of grammatical division of speech and singled out ten punctuation marks: 1) dash / 2) comma, 3) colon: 4) period. 5) razyatnaya 6) unity "7) question; 8) surprising! 9) common 10) deposition () Of the ten given names, razyatnaya and unity are not punctuation marks in the grammatical sense and are given in order to ensure clarity when reading individual words. Some signs in the grammar of M. Smotrytsky they are called differently than those of L. Zizania: instead of a double line - a colon, instead of a subframe - a question mark, instead of a connective - a single line. The author explains the feature as a slight increase in voice, not accompanied by a stop when reading. Therefore, this sign should be considered as a sign that does not have a syntactic meaning, but has only a rhythmic-melodic character. Therefore, a line that is not used in the meaning of a comma turns out to be devoid of any meaning. But it should be noted that the line was an innovation of the grammarian, before him this sign was not known to our punctuation. It is debatable whether the line can be considered a prototype of a dash. If we talk about the graphic side, then, of course, there is a relationship. But in their functions they are different, since the punctuation of the grammar was based on a fundamentally different principle. The comma at Smotrytsky is a clearly expressed punctuation mark. From the examples given in the grammar, it is possible to reveal the really syntactic purpose of only one punctuation mark - the comma. As for the colon, Smotrytsky notes that the idea of ​​a completely finished meaning of the statement is not associated with this sign, and with the colon, a certain stop is clearly felt. So, this sign is somewhat close in meaning to the modern semicolon and partly to the modern colon.

Bibliography

Antonova, Voiteleva "Russian language and culture of speech". Moscow, 2005

Vvedenskaya, Pavlova "Russian language and culture of speech". Rostov-on-Don, 2000

Similar abstracts:

General characteristics of speech forms. Oral form of speech. Written form of speech. Specificity of the norms of the written codified language. Similarities and differences between oral and written forms of speech.

What is spelling? Spelling(from Greek spelling) is a set of norms or rules of practical writing: the rules for using letters of the alphabet when writing words, their forms and combinations; and rules for writing words and phrases, regardless of the letters included in their spelling.

The discussion of the principles of Russian spelling should begin with the definition of the principles of graphics, i.e. letters. The principles of graphics govern the ways in which sound speech is conveyed in writing, while the principles of spelling provide rules for the transmission of sound speech by graphic symbols. In other words, graphics are primary in relation to spelling.

A.A. Reformed identifies 6 paired principles that regulate the norms for the use of letters of the alphabet:

a. phonemic and phonetic.

b. Etymological and traditional-historical.

c. Morphological and symbolic.

Phonemic principle of spelling is that each phoneme is expressed by the same letter, regardless of the position in which it falls.

For example, oak-oak, syllable-syllable, garden-garden: phonemes [b], [d], [d] are reflected in the letter in the same way, although they sound differently - in the forms oak, syllable, garden- voiced consonants, in forms oak, syllable, garden- consonants are deafened.

Phonetic principle of spelling is that the actual sounds are displayed by the letters. There are many examples of words in Russian that are spelled the way they sound. The best example is Italian language, where alphabetic associations are complex, but the fundamental principle of orthography is phonetic:

For example: parlo - parla, Sono di Roma, molto, forte, bene.

Another example of a language whose fundamental principle of orthography is phonetic is German, in which about 80% of the words are written as they are heard, with due observance of the rules of the alphabet.

Let's return to the phonetic principle in Russian orthography. Considering the above examples, we can say that in a strong position (when the consonant is voiced - oak, syllable, garden) the phonetic and phonemic principles of writing coincide, but not in weak writing.

Let's look at another example:

catfish and myself are written the same way both phonemically and phonetically, but in the phrase catfish caught by myself– spelling is phonemic, since strong positions determine distinction [about] and [a], and phonetically this statement would have the following spelling: paid herself.

In Russian writing, the phonetic principle underlies the spelling of prefixes on [h]: unemployed but hopeless, mediocre, but dumb, repay – sing, beat up – drink. Phonetic spellings s after c: gypsy, chicken, cucumbers, foxes, although according to the phonemic principle, it would be necessary to write here and.

A.A. Reformed formulates Russian spelling rules, based on the phonemic principle: write unstressed vowels in the same way as under stress: water, water carrier - water, lumberjack - forest; always write voiced and voiceless consonants in any position, as before vowels, sonorous consonants and [in] and [in']: fruit - fruit, raft - raft, mongrel - mongrels, Mashka - Mashek.

Etymological and traditional-historical principles spellings are based on the fact that the letter does not display the current state, but the past.

Etymological principle really corresponds to the language in its past, for example, spellings with the letter e: bees, wives, went, millet, because in these positions in the Russian language there was once a phoneme [e]. However, in modern language, the phonemic principle applies in such cases: about after a hissing and soft consonant - cf. seam, zhokh, chachotka, ratchet, sword.

Etymological spellings in English:

Traditional-historical principle of spelling preserves the tradition of writing. For example, the Church Slavonic spelling of the word assistant with sch, which etymologically should have been written with h, since the word goes back to Russian help (assistant), and phonemically through w – assistant. Also writing unstressed adjective endings -th and –th: spare, overseas but under stress -oh – spare, marine.

Pay attention: in Russian writing before the reform of 1917 there were much more words with traditional spelling.

The spelling of proper names with a capital letter in Russian is also based on the traditional-historical principle of orthography.

Morphological and symbolic principles tend to convey the language not through phonetics, while morphological spellings reflect morphology (grammar), and symbolic spellings tend to distinguish lexical homonyms phonetically indistinguishable.

An example morphological spellings in Russian is the use of a soft sign at the end of feminine words after hissing ( night, mouse). The same rule applies to borrowed words: fake, ink.

Example symbolic spellings: distinction in pre-reform Russian spelling of homonyms peace(antonym of war) and world(synonymous with the universe).

In modern Russian orthography, the combination of morphological and symbolic principles is manifested in such spellings as set fire to(verb with yo) and arson(noun with about), where both grammar and vocabulary differ.

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phonemic spelling. The principle of spelling, which consists in the fact that the letters of the alphabet are not actually pronounced sounds, but phonemes in their main form, i.e., regardless of position. So, the letter o in the words mountain and mountains. conveys a phoneme<о>the same way, i.e. this phoneme in writing is expressed by the same letter, although in the first word it is in a weak position, and in the second - in a strong one. In the words years and year, the letter is written the same way d, although the sounds it denotes are pronounced differently:

in the first word it is a voiced consonant, and in the second it is deaf. Practical rules follow from this." unstressed vowels should be written in the same way as under stress (water, water - because water);

voiced and deaf consonants should be written in any position as they are written in position before vowels, sonorant consonants and before in (the pond is because the pond, and the rod is because the rod). These rules practically also follow from the morphological principle of spelling, but between both principles (morphological and phonemic, which is also called phonological or phonemic), there are a number of discrepancies, primarily theoretical,

1. Both principles have different starting points; the morphological principle comes from the graphic image of the morpheme, and it is important for it to preserve the graphic uniformity of morphemes; the phonemic principle proceeds from the concept of a phoneme, and it is important for it to preserve the designation of phonemes (according to a strong position). See phoneme. The morphological principle of spelling cannot, of course, ignore positional and traditional (non-positional) alternations; only the latter are transmitted in writing, and then the stable form of the morpheme is preserved.

2. Both principles differ in their understanding of the meaning of pronunciation for writing, the connection between them; The morphological principle suggests that writing can have at its disposal techniques that are not necessarily based on on the pronunciation, and the material of analysis for it are letters, for which their relation to writing is established; the phonemic principle relies on the relationship of writing with pronunciation and, highlighting the phoneme, establishes the cases when the letter reproduces and when it does not reproduce phonemes.

There are also discrepancies in the justification of orthograms, in the explanation of unchecked spellings, etc.

phonetics(lit. phonetike from phnne - sound). 1. A branch of linguistics that studies the methods of formation and acoustic properties of the sounds of human speech. Phonetics is historical. A section of linguistics that studies the sound side of a language in its development.

Phonetics is general. A branch of linguistics that studies theoretical questions of the formation of speech sounds, the nature of stress, the structure of a syllable, the relationship of the sound side of a language to its grammatical system, using the material of various languages. Phonetics is descriptive. A section of linguistics that studies the sound structure of a particular language in synchronic terms.

Phonetics is experimental. The study of speech sounds using instrumental research methods,

2. Articulatory (physiological) and acoustic properties of the sounds of a given language. Phonetics of the Russian language. Phonetics of the French language.

phonetic transcription. A special way of recording speech in full accordance with its sound, used for scientific purposes, [in "sleep] (spring), [n" pr "iehot] (transition), [prv "ier" at "] (check).

phonetic units of speech. The links into which the speech stream (a chain of sounds) is divided in rhythmic-intonational terms. Consistently allocated: phrase, speech tact, phonetic word, syllable, sound (see these terms in alphabetical order).

phonetic spellings. Spelling words according to their pronunciation. The most important phonetic spellings:

1) writing prefixes on a; without-, air-, vz-, from-, bottom-, times-, roses, through- (through-). Boundless - unplanned, lead - exclaim, run up - turn around, choose - spoil, bring down - descend, distribute - lose, sledge - placers, excessive - striped;

2) writing a prefix times- (ras-) - roses- (grew). Find - search, paint - painting;

3) writing s instead of initial and after prefixes ending in a solid consonant. Unprincipled, find, previous, play.

phonetic means. The following functions have a delimiting function: speech sounds (cf.: house - smoke, horse - horse), verbal stress (cf.: castle-castle, legs - legs), phrasal stress (cf.:. A train came.- Train came.), intonation (cf .: It's snowing. Is it snowing?).

phonetic alternations. Alternations due to the phonetic patterns operating in the language: the change in sound is associated with the position of the sound does not change the composition of phonemes in the morpheme. Alternation of stressed and unstressed vowels: n [o] s --- n [ ^ ]-hundredth - n [b] owl. Alternation of voiced and deaf consonants: moro [s] (frost) - frost [s] ny.

phonetic law. Regularity of phonetic correspondences, regular and interrelated phonetic change. The law of the fall of the deaf in a certain era of the development of the Russian language. The law of stunning noisy voiced consonants at the end of a word. The law of assimilation of consonants according to sonority and deafness. The law of reduction of unstressed vowels.

phonetic parsing see phonetic analysis (in the article parsing).

phonetic word. An independent word, together with unstressed service words and particles adjoining it, [n-lugu] (in the meadow), [for-gart] (outside the city), [n "ne-knew] (did not know).

phonics(from Greek phonikos - sounding). Sound organization of speech (sound recording, sound instrumentation)

Principles of Russian spelling

Phonemic principle

Essence phonemic (phonological) principle is that significant part words (root, suffix, prefix, grammatical ending) retains its spelling regardless of its pronunciation realizations.

In other words, the speech representation of a phoneme (a phoneme in a significatively weak position) is indicated in writing by the sign that is used to designate it in the main, significatively strong position. Russian writing is phonemic, that is, the leading principle of Russian spelling is phonemic (phonological).

Basic spelling requirements based on the phonemic principle, i.e. its phonemicity are reduced to the following: “1) in order to know how to write an unstressed vowel, you need to put it under stress; 2) in order to know how to write a voiced or voiceless consonant, you need to put this consonant before the vowels or sounds [m], [n], [l], [p], [v], [j]; 3) to know whether or not to write b after a consonant before another consonant, you need to change the word so that the second consonant becomes solid; if at the same time the first consonant remains soft, then a soft sign must be written; 4) spelling of words honest, lovely, late, county etc. is checked by words honest, charm, be late, county etc.; 5) after h in combinations chk, th, thu soft sign is not written; 6) after w, w, w, h letters are not written i, yu, s, and the letters a, y, and(i.e., those that do not indicate the quality of the preceding consonant).

In accordance with the phonological principle, the characteristics of sound in significatively weak positions are not taken into account, and the phoneme variant is checked by its main realization, which is presented in a significatively strong position. Thus, root and grammatical morphemes in Russian orthography have a permanent graphic appearance. The "morphematism" of the phonological principle brings it closer to the morphological principle.

Vowels

In accordance with the phonological principle of Russian orthography, a variant of a vowel phoneme, that is, a phoneme in a weak significative position, without stress, is checked by a strong significative position within the same morpheme:

1) at the root - thunderstorm - thunderstorms, tree - trees, stripe - stripes - stripe,

side - side - side, in the yard - yard, in the snow - snow,

window - windows, poor - poor, short - short, look - look,

stretch - pull and etc.;

2) in suffixes - ladder, button, street, plate, water, buttonhole;

3) in consoles - ran, turned white, chatted, walked, wandered, torn.

pluck, match, collect, warm, create, created, torn off,

elevate, repay, exalt, resurrect, uplift, uplift and etc.

4) at the end - about a chair, about a house, about a city - about a table, about a sheet and etc.

about the frame, about the desk, about the bag, about winter, about the board and etc.

about the field, about the sea, about business, about the village, about the window and etc.

ran, prepared, let, walked, found and etc.

Consonants

opposed on the basis of deafness/voicedness

The consonant phoneme in the position of neutralization on the basis of deafness / voicedness, in accordance with the phonemic principle of writing, must be elevated to a strong position, i.e. put in one of the possible positions:

1) before a vowel;

2) before a sonorant consonant;

3) before<в>+ sonorant or vowel.

In one of these positions, relevant on the basis of deafness / voicedness, the check is also carried out within the limits of functionally identical morphemes:

4) at the root - frost - frost, snow - snow, fresh - fresh, light - light, good - good, tears - got down, rags - rags, low - low, dexterous - dexterous and etc.;

4) in consoles - make, fasten, compress, hand over, fool, blind, remove, shoe, peep, file, raise, learn and etc.

Consonants

contrasted on the basis of hardness / softness

The designation of a consonant phoneme in writing in the position of neutralization on the basis of hardness / softness also obeys the rule built on phonemic foundations. In this regard, one should distinguish between phonemic softness (independent, independent) and positional, conditioned softness.

Their difference lies in the fact that the phonemic softness of the consonant is preserved in combination not only with a soft consonant, but also with a hard one. Since she is independent, she is marked on the letter. A way to indicate the softness of a consonant in such difficult-to-write cases is a soft sign, for example: take - take, eight - eighth; skates - skate; struggle - struggle; Kuzma - Kuzma and etc.

However, positional softness, softness under the influence of a subsequent soft consonant phoneme (non-independent), is not preserved in position before a hard consonant. To indicate such softness, a soft sign is not used: ba [n "d"] it -ba[nd] a; to o[s"t"] and -ko [st] point, o roma [n "s"] e-roma[ns]; bi [n "t"] ik - bi[nt]a; ti [s "n"] enen - ti[sn] ut; ro [s "l"] and - ro[sl] a and etc.

Task number 1. Transcribe these words. Determine in which cases the softness of the consonant does not have a phonemic meaning.

Day, cut, stump, judge, take, bow, horse, raw materials, supine, mouse, daughter, lie down, cog, get carried away, postman, skates.

Task number 2. Find spellings in the text written in accordance with the phonological principle, and mark them above the word with a letter f .

In the left wing of the manor house, below, there was a very large dining room; next to it - a buffet and three spare rooms for guests. The right wing was occupied by a double-height hall, passing which one got into a home theater with several rows of seats and boxes on the sides. Several more rooms were located behind the stage.

(V.Khodasevich)

Morphological (morphematic) principle

The essence of this principle lies in the observance of the uniform spelling of the same morphemes. This is important when transferring the phonemic composition of words, when the same morpheme has a different phonemic composition in different words and forms of these words. The question of the morphological principle is solved differently by representatives of the St. Petersburg (SPFS) and Moscow (MFS) phonological schools.

From the standpoint of SPFS, the morphological principle is “a way of designating phonemes, in which phonemes that are in weak positions and are connected by a relation of positional alternation with phonemes of strong positions are designated - in order to preserve the graphic uniformity of morphemes - by letters adequate to the phonemes of strong positions." This principle of non-designation of positional alternations is considered the leading principle of Russian orthography. According to him Russian letter preserves the graphic uniformity of the same morphemes (roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings) where possible. In words [in] dy- [vΛ] Yes- [v] diana positionally alternating sounds [o], [l], [b] represent different phonemes,<о>, <а>, <а>respectively, but are transmitted in a strong position, and this achieves the unity of the morpheme. In words pru[e] s - pr[t] positionally alternating sounds [d] and [t] also represent different phonemes<д>and<т>respectively, but are transmitted in writing in a strong position, and this also achieves the unity of the morpheme.

From the standpoint of the IPF, positionally alternating sounds do not belong to different, but to one phoneme, and in writing, the whole series of alternating sounds is indicated by one letter, but this is a manifestation of the phonemic principle.

On the morphological principle, from the positions of the IMF, contrary to the phonological principle, the spelling of only individual words is built.

So, in the roots of words black and turn black different vowel phonemes appear under stress: black - <о>;turn black - <э>, but this alternation is conveyed by graphically similar letters, and this maintains the orthographic unity of the morpheme: whisper - whisper, yellow - turn yellow and under.

In accordance with morphological principle return postfix is ​​written -sya in verb forms, where not only the phoneme can appear<с"> (blow<с"ь> ), but<ц> (teach<ць> ) and<с> (took<сь>). But the orthographic appearance of this morpheme does not reflect the pronunciation features of this postfix.

The morphematic principle extends to such spellings as ultra-refined, inter-irrigation, counterplay, disinformation etc., where the letter and after a hard consonant (contrary to graphic rule write s after hard consonants - sum up, uninteresting etc.) helps to preserve the unity of the morpheme - the root.

Task number 3. Find in this list the words written in accordance with the morphological principle (according to the IMF) and mark them above the spelling with the letter m.

Twine, supra-individual, silk, afraid, whisper, improvise, lattice, rattle, disinformation, wives, slum, named himself, overnight stay, bangs, engaged, counterplay, opened, teacher's institute, penny.

Phonetic principle

With the phonetic principle of spelling, the letter indicates not a phoneme, but a sound. Phonetic spellings are therefore somewhat similar to transcription: the word is spelled as it is pronounced. This principle is leading in the spelling system of some languages. These are languages ​​where the basis for writing is pronunciation. For example, the spelling of the Belarusian language has the following spellings: city(city) - garadas(cities); forest(forest) - laces(forests); mora(sea) - marschi(nautical); night(night) - start(night); river(river) - cancer(river); rent(rent) - tenant(tenant); galava(head) - galouka(head).

Serbo-Croatian orthography literary language, which underwent a radical reform at the beginning of the 19th century, also reflects the speech changes in the phoneme: erbin(Serb) - Serbian(Serbian); sweetie(sweet) - slatka(sweet); create(create) - be friends(to make friends); run(run) - bekstvo(escape); knife(legs) - noshka(leg); vrsidba(threshing) - vrshiti(thresh); nazeb(cold) - nazepsti(to catch a cold).

It is quite obvious that the spelling of these languages ​​does not make it possible to identify morphemes: they are written differently, in accordance with the pronunciation.

In Russian orthography, in accordance with the phonetic principle, they write a/o in prefixes of words search - search, although the phonemic composition of prefixes is the same in accordance with the strong position -<роз>.

According to the phonetic principle, the endings of nouns are written in -iya, -iya, -iya (about the revolution, in the building, in the sanatorium), although formally they can be attributed to the 1st declension (on -and I) or to the 2nd declension (on -th, -th) and have an appropriate ending. The phonetic principle corresponds to the spelling s after c (contrary to the phonemic requirement to designate a phoneme<и>the sign corresponding to it - the letter and. Prefixes on z- (time-, bottom-, air-, without-, through-, through-, from-) change the consonant depending on the subsequent voiced / deaf sound: immense, but careless.

Task number 4.. Find spellings in these sentences written in accordance with the phonetic principle and designate them above the word with the letter p (based on pronunciation).

1) There is no favorable wind for a broken ship. 2) Outlived the need, forgot friendship. 3) Chickens are counted in the fall. 4) You can’t drive a shameless guest out of the hut with beer. 5) In March, a gypsy sells a fur coat. 6) He made a noise like a sparrow to the rain. 7) All these stories are far away. 8) A few moments passed in silence.

Traditional principle

The traditional principle of spelling is that those spellings that corresponded to the pronunciation in the distant past of the language are preserved, although they are far from its modern norms. Such spellings cannot be explained either by phonetic or morphological features of the language. They reflect pronunciation norms of the past or occasional spellings that once became the orthographic norm.

Traditional spellings relate the current state of the language to its history, and their explanation is linked to the history of the language and the history of orthography. For example, in the Old Russian language, writing inflections of adjectives, possessive pronouns and participles -ago, -yago matched the pronunciation. In the course of the long history of the language, the phonetic system has undergone changes, but the pronunciation of inflection with a consonant in modern orthography is reflected according to the rules that developed in the distant past of the language, i.e. pronounce blue[ in ]oh, yours[ in ]oh, red[ in ]oh, another[ in ]about, but in writing, according to tradition, we denote the phoneme<в>letter g: blue, yours, another.

The most traditional spelling of the English language. In the Middle English period (until the 16th century), the spelling of the English language corresponded to the pronunciation. It was characterized by the absence of strictly established spelling norms, since every writer was guided by his pronunciation, and it contained some differences of dialect origin.

The introduction of printing (in the 16th century) required the establishment of orthographic norms, and the spelling of the English language, adopted by Cagston in his printed editions, became the basis of English orthography, which has survived in its main features to the present.

In the course of the development of the language and its phonetic-phonological system of the New English period, changes took place, but the spelling remained basically the same as in the Middle English period. Therefore, there are significant discrepancies between the graphic and phonetic appearance of most words in the English language, which creates certain difficulties in mastering English spelling.

Many English scholars (starting from the 16th century) were busy with the issue of improving English writing. Over the course of three centuries, several reform projects were proposed, but none of them were put into practice.

In the 19th century societies for the improvement of spelling were created in England and the USA, but the activities of these societies, as well as projects

reforms that were considered by the British Parliament did not lead to positive results.

In English, it is not enough to hear a word in order to write it correctly, so it is typical for it to ask about the spelling of a word: How do you spell it? What is the spelling of this word?

The complexity of English spelling is expressed by a well-known saying: Written by Manchester - read Liverpool.

Traditional spelling systems present the greatest difficulty in learning a language, since spellings are not subject to any verification and require automatic memorization.

English spelling does not satisfy the native speakers themselves. It is known, for example, that B. Shaw was extremely worried about the state of English spelling. He bequeathed a large sum to whoever finds the most rational means of simplifying it; who will bring the spelling closer to the current state of the English language. However, the bequeathed amount has not yet been received by anyone.

In Russian writing, spellings are traditional, when the choice of a letter is not motivated by the phonemic composition of the word, the letter is written according to traditions. So, the endings of adjectives, participles, possessive pronouns in R. p. units. h.m. are written according to the traditional Principle, contrary to the phonemic one: a phoneme in a significatively strong position is indicated by the sign of another phoneme according to tradition, as was formed in Church Slavonic writing: we pronounce your[ in ]oh, red[ in ]oh, another[ in ]oh really[ in ]about, but we write yours, red, different, real. The choice of a letter is not phonemically motivated: a phoneme in a significatively strong position does not have an adequate designation, and this contradicts the basic principle of Russian writing.

Word spelling assistant also traditional, contrary to the phonemic principle: the phoneme<ш>in a significatively strong position, denoted by the letter u - assistant, although we pronounce help[ w ]Nick.

Spelling of hyperphonemes

A hyperphonemic situation arises when a phoneme in a weak significative position cannot be determined, since it is impossible to raise it to a strong significative position within the same morpheme. In this case, we are dealing with a special phoneme, which is usually called a hyperphoneme. A hyperphoneme is defined as a phonological unit, which is a set of phonemes that neutralize (coincide) in weak positions, where it is impossible to verify a functionally identical morpheme. (Kuzmina S. M. Theory of Russian orthography: Russian orthography and its relation to phonetics and phonology - M. 1981 - P. 232.) Thus, since the hyperphoneme is represented only by sounds of weak positions or, according to R. I. Avanesov, is a phonemic series not headed by a strong phoneme, it is sometimes called a "defective" phoneme, a unit of "lower rank". (Avanesov R. I. Phonetics of modern lit. language - M., 1956. - p. 33)

The choice (disjunction) of phonemes is possible for different groups sounds:

1) e. vowels.

2) e. consonants. Opposite - x in ch./sv.

3) D. agreed, against - x on TV / soft.

Given a choice of phonemes, orthography traditionally selects one of two or > suitable signs for learning a phoneme.

Vowel hyperphonemes

< и/э >- exam, interest, gypsy, iron, etc.

< о/а >- kalach, poster, dog. Cow, drum...

< и/э/о/а >- minnow, minute, walk, ...

< э/о/а >- january, japanese, raccoon, barely, yet,…

Consonant hyperphonemes.

<г/к>- all of a sudden, all of a sudden. on an empty stomach...

<т/д>- football, this one, that one, as if ...

<з/с>- air, watchman, etc.

<с/с">- snow, cast, tears, lick ...

<с/с"/з/з">- steppe, walls, banner, sterlet, ...

<т/т"/д/д"/ц>twenty, thirty, fifteen, etc.

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