Why was India divided after independence. India gaining independence

Not having sufficient forces to maintain the colonial status of India, the ruling circles of England began to lean towards the idea of granting her dominion rights. In early 1946, the first post-war elections were held in India for the Central and Provincial Legislative Assemblies. On March 15, 1946, the Labor government of England announced its readiness to grant India the status of a dominion, which assumed its independence while maintaining the formal power of the English king. But this turned out to be an extremely difficult task. The differences between Hindus and Muslims were already irreconcilable. The Muslim League led by Mohammed Ali Jinnah (1876-1948) advocated since 1940 the creation of a separate Islamic state of Pakistan in the predominantly Muslim provinces.

An attempt by the British to create a provisional government to prepare India for an independent existence ran into a mutual misunderstanding between the INC and the Muslim League. The League agreed to equal representation in it. But opposed the Congress, which had the support of the overwhelming majority of the population. When the colonial authorities, in accordance with Western norms of democracy, proposed to the Chairman of the INC, J. Nehru, to independently form a coalition government with the participation of Muslims, the League flatly refused to enter it. In August 1946, Indo-Muslim clashes and pogroms began in Calcutta and other cities. M. Gandhi's efforts to reconcile the parties were unsuccessful. Only in October 1946 did the representatives of the League enter the government, retaining their commitment to the idea of Pakistan. Religious pogroms continued.

Under these conditions, in order to avoid a large-scale war in India, the British government in the spring of 1947 changed the procedure for granting independence to India. It was decided to create two states on its territory - India and Pakistan. The latter was to include the western provinces of the colony, predominantly populated by Muslims, and some of its eastern territories (East Bengal), the distance between which was 1.5 thousand km. Perhaps this was not the best solution, since in many parts of the country Hindus and Muslims lived mixed up, and in the conditions of its partition, conflicts between them became inevitable.

On July 18, 1947, the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act, which provided for the formation on August 15 of the same year of the dominions of India and Pakistan, which were part of the British Commonwealth. The mass migration of Hindus to India and Muslims to Pakistan accelerated, accompanied by numerous bloody clashes. On August 15, 1947, India and Pakistan officially became sovereign independent states.

But even after that, the conflicts in India, where 61 million Muslims (9% of the population) remained, did not stop. M. Gandhi, who stood up for the protection of the religious world, was himself killed on January 30, 1948 by a Hindu religious fanatic. Thus, in the first year of India's independence, the life of the most prominent fighter for her freedom was tragically cut short.

There were also great difficulties in establishing the economic life of the country, aggravated by the withdrawal to Pakistan of areas specialized in the cultivation of bread, cotton, jute production, etc. In India, the already difficult food problem worsened. The standard of living of the majority of the population fell.

Trying to solve these current problems, the government, with the participation of various political parties and groups in 1948-1949. He was also involved in the development of the most important document for India - the Constitution. It was approved by the Constituent Assembly at the end of November 1949 and entered into force on January 26, 1950. This day is considered the Independence Day of the country. India ceased to be a British dominion and was proclaimed a "sovereign democratic republic". The president, elected for a term of 5 years, became the official head of state. Executive power was exercised on his behalf by the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. The legislative branch of government was represented by a bicameral parliament. The Republic of India was created as a federal state with limited powers of the states. Both the central government and the state governments were accountable to the legislatures.

Theme: Post Independence India.

Introduction …………………………………………………………………3-7

Section 1

1.1. Administrative-territorial reforms and the emergence of the Kashmir problem………………………………………………………..8-17

1.2.First steps towards the formation of Indian statehood. Development and adoption of the Constitution……………………………………………………………18-21

Chapter 2. Socio-economic and political changes in India……………………………………………………………………………………………………22-67

2.1. Confrontation of political associations …………………22-46

2.2. The concept of socialism Jawaharlal Nehru…………………47-58

2.3. Foreign policy of India in the second half of the twentieth century………58-67

Conclusion……………………………………………………………68-70

List of used literature……………………………71-73

Introduction

In the centuries-old history of India in the XX century. there was a period of the liberation struggle of the Indian people against colonial domination, for the independence of the country - a time of overcoming the past heritage and building a new state, solving gigantic social and economic tasks.

In the second half of the 20th century, the Indian National Congress and other political organizations laid the foundation for the Indian national liberation movement.

Along with the desire for independence, tensions also developed over the years between the Hindu and Muslim populations. The Muslims, always a minority, were afraid of being dominated by the Hindu government and were wary of the idea of independence.

In 1915, Mahatma Gandhi led the Indian national liberation movement and called for unity on both sides. The tremendous influence that Gandhi had on India in its struggle for independence through a non-violent mass popular movement, which made him one of the most remarkable leaders in world history. The Indians called him mahatma, which means "great soul" in Sanskrit. From 1920, Mahatma Gandhi launched a massive campaign against the British colonial government. A revolutionary movement against British rule began throughout the Indian subcontinent.

The first step towards Indian independence and the establishment of Western-style democracy was the appointment of Indian advisers in the administration of the British Viceroy.

The Second World War brought about fundamental changes in the international situation and in India's domestic situation. Prolonged colonial oppression led to poverty and ruin of the broad masses. The contradiction between the tendency towards independent development of India and the colonial domination of England sharply aggravated, which caused the rise of a powerful anti-imperialist movement from the summer of 1945. It united the main sections of the population, and due to historical circumstances, the national bourgeoisie was at the head, whose interests were represented by the Indian National Congress ( INC). Despite his desire to limit speeches to the framework of "non-violent struggle", a protest movement unfolded in the country against the sending of Indian troops to Indo-China and Indonesia, a campaign to protect the Indian National Army. At the beginning of 1946, this movement seized the army and navy, the state apparatus. It manifested the unity of religious communities, nationalities and political movements.

At the beginning of 1946, with the consent of the colonial authorities, elections to the legislative assembly were held in India. The majority was received by the INC party, which formed the country's provisional government. At the same time, those provinces and principalities of India, where the Muslim population predominated, refused to recognize the authority of the INC. The Muslim League representing their interests proclaimed the beginning of the struggle for the creation of an Islamic state on the territory of the former British India.

In 1947, the colonial administration announced the granting of independence to India. The previously united colony was divided into two states along religious lines - Hindu India and Islamic Pakistan, which received the status of dominions. The principalities and provinces (states) of British India had to decide which of the states they would join.

Due to the division of Punjab and Bengal, bloody clashes broke out between Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims, as a result of which more than 500,000 people died. The division of India also led to one of the largest population migrations in the modern history of the world - about 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims settled in the territory of the newly created states of India and Pakistan. The leader of the liberation movement M. Gandhi fell victim to the assassination attempt by an Islamist fanatic. In the autumn of 1947, detachments of the Pashtun tribe invaded the territory of the principalities of Jammu and Kashmir in northern India from Pakistan. Indian troops came to the aid of the principalities that expressed their desire to become part of India. The Indo-Pakistani war of 1947-1949 began, stopped after the intervention of the UN on the basis of a compromise - the division of Jammu and Kashmir between India and Pakistan.

The final step towards gaining independence was the adoption of the 1950 constitution, and the INC became the ruling party, which held power until 1977. Its leader until his death in 1964 was J. Nehru, who was replaced in this post by his daughter, Indira Gandhi. In turn, her decisive action helped boost the Indian economy and tackle corruption.

Relevance work is that at present India is one of the most dynamically developing countries in the world, which became possible largely due to a series of fundamental reforms undertaken by the Indian government in the 50s - 80s of the twentieth century, after gaining independence.

aim work is to study the problems of state and legal development of India after independence.

To achieve this goal, it was necessary to solve the following tasks:

Determine the main directions and problems in the formation of the statehood of India;

Analyze the problems of state and legal development of India after gaining independence;

Consider the foreign policy and foreign economic relations of India from the moment of independence until 1984.

The final qualifying work consists of an introduction, two chapters divided into paragraphs, a conclusion and a list of sources and literature used.

Degree of study (Historiography): India's policy in the 20th century increasingly covers various spheres of society's activity and more and more actively influences social processes. This can be considered in the work of K.A. Antonov, G.M. Bongaru-Levin, G.G. Kotovsky "Economic, social and political development of India (1947-1987)", which reveals the main stages and features of India's internal political situation. Particular attention is paid to internal differentiation and contradictions in society. In the work of Alaev L.B. "India: The National Liberation Movement in India" examines in detail the interaction of the ethnic factor and the political system in India in historical development. In the work of A.M. Dyakov "India during and after the Second World War" analyzes the conflict situations in Punjab, Assam and other areas and their impact on changes in the political superstructure, as well as the process of economic development of India after the Second World War.

I also used the works of Soviet scientists, such as Komarova E.N. "Trends in the political development of modern India", Chicherov A.I, works of Yurlova F.N. "Indira Gandhi: the path to power", "The social status of women and the women's movement in India", Rastyannikova V.G. Land Reform in India. India Today" etc.

Chapter 1. The main directions in the formation of Indian statehood.

Gaining independence by India.

Plan.

China at the present stage.

By the end of World War II, there actually existed two Chinas: the territories controlled by the Kuomintang and the liberated areas ruled by the CPC (1/4 of the country's territory). Despite the negotiations (August 1945 - January 1946 ᴦ.), hostilities between them continued, which created a threat of an all-Chinese civil war. The decision to form a provisional coalition government (January 1946 ᴦ.) could become the basis for the peaceful unification and democratization of China, however, they were thwarted by the leaders of the Kuomintang, which began in the spring of 1946 ᴦ. offensive in Northeast China.

In the course of the civil war, the crisis of the Kuomintang regime deepened, its anti-national character manifested itself, and the discontent of the masses and the national bourgeoisie increased. The liberated areas were fortified. The agrarian reform of the CPC secured the support of the peasants, and the People's Liberation Army (PLA) grew and strengthened. These factors led to a turn in the course of the war in favor of the revolutionary forces. In the context of the military successes of the CPC in 1947-1948 ᴦ. The Central Committee of the party put forward the task of completing the people's democratic revolution, overthrowing the Kuomintang dictatorship and creating a democratic coalition government. The CPC supported the formation of a united people's democratic front from various classes.

As a result of three major battles in Northeast, North and East China (Autumn 1948 - January 1949 ᴦ.), the Kuomintang regime faced collapse. He lost over one and a half million soldiers and officers and vast territories. In April 1949 ᴦ. PLA troops resumed their offensive, crossed the Yangtze River and liberated South and Southwest China. The proclamation of the People's Republic of China (October 1, 1949 ᴦ.) was a victory for the people's democratic revolution. It created the prerequisites for strengthening the country's independence and completing the bourgeois-democratic reforms. The question of power was decided in favor of a united front, led by the CCP.

Under the new conditions (1949-1957 ᴦ.), there is an intensification of the struggle within the CPC on the ways of the country's development after the seizure of power. The political position of Mao Zedong changed - he believed that the time had come for the realization of the goals of the communist movement, for the realization, in fact, of the communist barracks utopia. At the same time, many party leaders (Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping, Zhou Enlai, and others) spoke in favor of using the concept of "new democracy", designed to renew China over a rather long period of time.

At that time, the revolutionary forces were solving tasks: completing the defeat of the Kuomintang troops, establishing power in the southern and western regions and on the islands, fighting counter-revolutionary bands, and creating an apparatus for a new state power. By the mid-1950s. almost the entire territory of China was liberated in 1951 ᴦ. The PLA entered Tibet. The remnants of Chiang Kai-shek's troops fled to the island of Taiwan.

The restoration of the PRC economy took place in line with market (albeit limited) processes, in the conditions of a multi-structural economy. Small-scale production prevailed, the property of the national bourgeoisie was preserved, and as a result of the nationalization of the property of big capital and the Japanese imperialists, the state sector was formed. The policy of the CCP was to simultaneously with the restoration of the economy, relying on the economic assistance of the USSR (the slogan "Learning from the USSR"), to strengthen the public sector, capable of ensuring the transition to the construction of socialism. Thus, by 1952 ᴦ. the restructuring of the economic structure began (production of means of production accounted for 40%). The policy towards the national bourgeoisie was to use private capital to rebuild the economy and increase control over it. As a result of the agrarian reform (1950 - 1953 ᴦ.), landownership was liquidated, the influence of the kulaks was undermined, and the development of cooperation began.

Successes in the restoration of the national economy were used by Mao to impose on the party his leftist, adventurist views on the accelerated modernization of China. In 1953 ᴦ. Mao spoke for the first time in favor of an immediate transition to a socialist revolution. His opponents continued to defend the sustained general line for a long transition to socialism (1953-1967 ᴦ.), Gradually completing the transformation of agriculture, industry and trade.

Mao's ideological and political victory in the intra-Party struggle led to fundamental changes in the social and economic policy of the CCP, and above all in the agrarian sector: a grain monopoly and a rationing system were introduced. China has made a sharp turn to the path of command-administrative functioning of the national economy and has done so in the shortest possible time. In 1955 ᴦ. The CPC switched over to rural cooperatives, its pace was sharply intensified, and a transition was made to cooperatives of a higher type. The CPC persistently searched for ways of social and political control over the peasantry.

By the end of 1956 ᴦ. 96.3% of farms were involved in cooperatives (according to the plan - 33%), including 88% of the highest type. This major social event aroused the resistance of the peasants. In 1956 ᴦ. a complete transformation of industry and trade into state-capitalist ones was launched, and in fact the nationalization of private enterprises for ransom was carried out. In retail trade, the share of private capital by the end of 1956 ᴦ. was only 3%. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, radical socio-economic changes took place throughout the country - private property was eliminated and market relations were sharply limited.

The implementation of reforms in the first half of the 1950s revealed such features in the policy of the CCP as the idea of the decisive role of political and ideological campaigns, military-administrative methods, the acceleration of the pace of reforms and the violation of gradualness, the lack of experience and personnel, and unpreparedness for governing a huge country. , the coercive nature of the measures, the lack of a technical basis for increasing labor productivity. A feature of the entire political development of the PRC was the ever-increasing implantation of the ideas and personality cult of Mao Zedong. A system of ideological control and political manipulation is taking shape in society, campaigns are being carried out to re-educate the intelligentsia, and ideas about the intensification of the class struggle are being imposed. Within the CPC, the clash of two ideological and political tendencies continued - the moderately pragmatic and the radical utopian.

Orientation towards friendship with the USSR became the main feature of China's foreign policy. In 1950 ᴦ. signed an agreement on friendship, alliance and mutual assistance, an agreement on the gratuitous transfer of the rights of the USSR to manage the CER. The help of the USSR played a big role in the construction of a new state and in the restoration of the national economy.

In the late 1950s, the country became an arena for Mao's risky experiments to accelerate the development of socialist processes. The first of these was the "Great Leap Forward in Industry and Agriculture" (1958 ᴦ.), during which Mao sought to oppose the new course of the CPSU (after the 20th Congress) with his own political line. Its essence is to get ahead of time and overtake the USSR in building a new life. Unable to create a developed economic base in the country in a short time, Mao decided to reduce the leap into the future to the reform of human relations, to the stimulation of labor enthusiasm in the conditions of an egalitarian life, barracks forms of existence and with an extreme degree of officialization of life. In the "people's communes" industry, agriculture, trade, education and military affairs were combined, labor and the main means of production, all the property of the peasants were socialized, an equal distribution of income was introduced, the principle of material interest and distribution according to work was eliminated. The enthusiasm of the working people was fueled by the slogan "Three years of hard work - ten thousand years of happiness."

The results showed up quickly. Already at the end of 1956 ᴦ. and even more poignantly in 1959 ᴦ. the country began to experience hunger. The labor activity of the peasants deprived of land and any property has decreased. Production was disorganized, not only in the countryside, but also in the city. The principle of planning in industry has been violated, disproportions have formed in the economy, equipment has been destroyed, and people's enthusiasm has been wasted.

There were also changes in the foreign policy course. The People's Republic of China claimed a special role in Asia and throughout the world. In 1959 ᴦ. incidents began on the Sino-Indian border, the shelling of islands in the Taiwan Strait. The PRC abandoned friendship with the USSR (in 1960, Soviet specialists were recalled), the slogan "self-reliance" began to be promoted, which meant the intention to cut off ties with the socialist countries, oppose the policy of peaceful coexistence and the possibility of preventing a world war.

At the turn of the 1960s, another grouping of the CPC (“pragmatists”) managed to somewhat improve the situation in the country. But the conflict between Mao and her leaders (Peng Dehuai, Deng Xiaoping) did not stop. In the first half of the 60s. a struggle for the army unfolded, army methods of work were introduced everywhere.

By 1965 ᴦ. Disagreements within the leadership of the CPC reached great acuity. Οʜᴎ concerned the methods, goals and prospects for the development of the PRC, its domestic and foreign policy. The conflict led to a new grandiose social experiment - to the "cultural revolution", under the banner of which a decade passed - the last in Mao's life (1966-1976 ᴦ.). It was a struggle for elusive power. Its meaning was reduced to the desire to reckon with the party that interfered with him and questioned his actions, which led to the pogroms of party bodies, the apparatus of power and the entire intelligentsia by detachments of the Red Guards - Red Guards ("Red Guards"). The latter sacredly believed in the leader deified by them and faithfully carried out his instructions. In the country, instead of democracy, a military-bureaucratic dictatorship was being established with reliance on the army, the Maoist "model of communism" was being affirmed, and the real threat of civil war was growing. The regime of Mao's personal and unlimited power was taking shape, and the traditions of "oriental despotism" were openly revived. The Cultural Revolution cost the country dearly and led the Chinese economy to a deep crisis.

China's internal development determined the nature of its foreign policy. From the 1960s to the beginning of the 1980s, tensions persisted in relations with the USSR, their struggle on a global scale. The number of incidents on the border grew (1967, 1969 ᴦ.), Claims to Soviet territory and the thesis of a "threat from the North" were put forward. The great-power, nationalist nature of China's policy was manifested. A serious conflict broke out with India (1962 ᴦ.), tension arose on the Burmese border, relations with Vietnam deteriorated sharply (1978 ᴦ.). By the beginning of the 70s, the USSR was declared enemy No. 1, preparation for war became the main goal of economic construction. China went to rapprochement with the United States (1976 ᴦ.), put forward a goal - the creation of a "broad international front" against the USSR.

Mao's experiments demonstrated that a Stalinist model was created in China with the rigid power of the classical Eastern type, with the restriction of individual rights and freedoms and the omnipotence of a bureaucratic administration based on powerful ideological pressure. This was facilitated by: the habit of the Chinese to respect a strong personality and a stable administration, habitually dismissive attitude towards merchants and owners, private traders, a high level of social discipline, and a willingness to honor the elders and the wise. An important role was played by the power and authority of the authorities, the style of internal party struggle in the CPC - the fear of a split in the party dictated a tendency to compromise, disagreements did not become open. At the same time, this model did not give the desired results; on the contrary, it turned out to be destructive.

Before Mao's successors in 1976 - 1978 ᴦ. an acute problem arose: how to get out of the impasse? A sharp political and ideological struggle of factions unfolded in the party. The radical "four" supporters of the continuation of Mao's course were defeated and arrested. "Pragmatists" were strengthened in leadership positions. The failure of the economic activities of these years convinced them of the critical importance of deep structural reforms for China. A powerful campaign began under the slogan - "practice is the only criterion of truth." The Plenum of the CPC Central Committee (December 1978 ᴦ.) was a complete victory for Deng's supporters, he sanctioned the reforms.

In the early 1980s, the "pragmatists" went on the offensive: they achieved the condemnation of the "cultural revolution", began the rehabilitation of the victims, raised the question of Mao's personal responsibility, and began the process of de-Maoization of society. The new leadership of the CCP and the PRC approached pragmatically the task of turning China into a wealthy power, de-ideologizing their policy and bringing to the fore only patriotic ideas of building a wealthy China. These profound political changes set the stage for the New Economic Policy.

The essence of the economic reforms was simple: the way was opened for the return of the interest of the worker in the fruits of his labor, for which the communes were liquidated, and the land was given to the peasants. Tens of thousands of markets have emerged, commerce is officially legalized. Since 1984 ᴦ. the reform swept the city: the role of the State Planning Commission and central regulation was severely limited, opportunities were created for the development of the cooperative-collective and individual sectors. Directors of state-owned enterprises were given broad rights and opportunities. The reforms were radical and carried out quickly and decisively, the first three years (1979-1981) were declared the years of reconstruction, and the planned targets were removed. Appropriations for military needs have been drastically reduced, the army has been reduced, and the military industry has been made responsible for assisting in the restructuring of the economy. The powers of administrative bodies, including party committees, are significantly limited.

The results of the reforms were felt so quickly that it surprised the whole world. Food production increased sharply: by 1984 ᴦ. the country has reached the level of 400 million tons of grain per year, which is quite enough to provide its population (1 billion 300 million) with the necessary minimum food. The average living standard of the peasantry has grown 2-3 times. There were layers of wealthy peasants and townspeople working for the market. The industry turned its face to the domestic market. The general standard of people's behavior has also changed: they have become freer, personal tastes, preferences, changes in clothing (the uniform of Mao's time has disappeared), behavior, way of thinking, striving for the foundations of the rule of law have appeared.

But there were obstacles in the way of reforms. The party apparatus accustomed to power resisted. There were negative phenomena caused by the market economy (abuse of power, corruption, smuggling, inflation, social tension between the poor and the rich, especially in the countryside). At the same time, against the backdrop of success and high average growth rates (since 1979, economic growth rates were 12-18% per year), they were officially recognized as only unfortunate development costs. The CPC congresses fully and unreservedly supported the reform course taken by Deng Xiaoping and largely successfully implemented thanks to his leadership. Ideologically, it was justified by the official recognition that China is a backward developing country and that it is too early to talk about the serious construction of socialism. So far, China is at the initial stage of building socialism, and socialism with Chinese characteristics. It was believed that the chosen development model with a significant inclusion of elements of a market economy, a significant role of the privatized sector working for the free market, corresponded to this. By the end of the 1980s, reforms led the country to high achievements.

But the rapid pace of economic reform led to unexpected socio-political and ideological problems. In 1987 ᴦ. for the first time they started talking about the restructuring of the political system (they introduced the principle of turnover and rejuvenation of leaders). A balanced attitude towards Mao is maintained, although his cult was first recognized and condemned in 1981 ᴦ. In an attempt to solve problems, the country's leadership at the turn of the 80-90s began to back away. The implementation of the reform meant the collapse of the Maoist regime. At the same time, the communists could not actively support the process of formation of private capital. Since 1989 ᴦ. they clearly saw the example of the USSR, which embarked on the path of structural adjustment and rapidly acquired a state of instability. At the same time, they felt that any relaxation in the socio-political and ideological sphere would mean a course not only towards destabilization, but also the rapid collapse of the country. They did not forget about the responsibility that each of those involved in power after that would have to bear.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the authoritarian regime and command-administrative forms of control over the country had to leave the political scene for the sake of economic development along the market path. The unusual thing about China is that by the turn of the 1980s and 1990s the economic mechanism had unwinded, and the communist leaders associated with the old regime did not want to deepen democratic reforms. The result was the effect of an overheated boiler.

"Overheating of the economy" began to be felt from the mid-80s. At the end of the 1980s, the demands for democratization and the departure of the CPC leadership from power became louder, and influential persons in the leadership (CPC General Secretaries Hu Yaobang, Zhao Ziyang) listened to them. At the same time, the General Secretaries of the CCP did not have all the power - the real power continued to remain in the hands of the reform architect Deng Xiaoping, who had formally departed from it. Deng hesitated for a long time, because he understood that the demand for political reforms was reasonable and just. But he was also aware of something else - agreeing to radical political reforms (following the example of the USSR and Eastern Europe) would lead the regime to collapse with unpredictable consequences. The choice was made in favor of the lesser evil. The democratic movement of students, splashed out in the summer of 1989 ᴦ. on the streets and squares of Beijing, was crushed in Tiananmen Square by tanks. Students were sent to universities for ideological re-education. Again the communist reactionaries raised their heads. Democrats were reproached for being supporters of bourgeois liberalism, which was true (in the early 1990s, this term even became an ideological stigma). The defeat of the democratic movement has long removed the question of political reforms and the democratization of the political structure.

After 1989 ᴦ. the economy continued to develop, albeit at a more restrained pace. The demand for the preservation and improvement of "socialism with Chinese characteristics" was affirmed. After the collapse of the USSR, the communist leaders congratulated each other on the choice of 1989 ᴦ. Today, there are two groups in the CCP on the issue of implementing this concept - radicals (supporters of spasmodic development) and conservatives (evolutionary path). In fact, the Chinese concept

it is a common path for the entire developing world. Emphasizing your specificity is camouflage in order to buy time and prevent a social explosion. China is following the path of bourgeois liberalism, but the leadership on which this primarily depends wants this to happen as slowly and smoothly as possible. To accelerate the pace, a generation of veterans of wars and revolutions needs to leave.

In the 1990s, after the first successes of the "settlement" policy (1989-1991 ᴦ.), the following directions of economic reform were outlined: restructuring of state-owned enterprises, the introduction of joint stock ownership, price reform, housing privatization, and the creation of a social security system. The CPC congresses (1992, 1997 ᴦ.) made a decisive turn towards the market, for which all ideological barriers were removed (the task of creating a “socialist market economy” was approved instead of the contradictory term “planned commodity economy”). In 1999 ᴦ. the Constitution was amended to recognize the important role of the private sector in China's socialist market economy. The 1990s were seen as an opportunity for a breakthrough. The expansion of the policy of openness to the outside world (free and specialized, border open zones, development and free trade zones) is emphasized. In the 1980s and 1990s, China became one of the most important pillars of the economic structure of East Asia and the Asia-Pacific region, an important producer of finished products for the markets of industrial and developing countries. The country came out on top in the world in the production of cereals, meat, cotton, coal, cement, cotton fabrics. Electronics, mechanical engineering, production of electricity, oil and chemical products are successfully developing. Exports increase by 25% annually. Particular emphasis is placed on the development of infrastructure. Having crossed the line of centuries, China has confidently entered a new stage of modernization - GDP amounted to 8.3% (2000ᴦ), the average per capita income of citizens was $ 760, peasants - 273. The task was set by 2010 ᴦ. double GDP by restructuring the national economy in accordance with market requirements and reforming public sector enterprises.

In domestic politics, the parliamentary multi-party system and the existence of independent political parties claiming the role of political opposition, political pluralism are rejected, the leading role of public property is preserved, the concept of continuing the class struggle in some areas of society. The CCP did not return to the 1987 decision ᴦ. about political reform. She spoke only in favor of reforming the administrative apparatus and adapting the political system to the needs of economic development. The authority of the authorities is high, and it is no coincidence that the reforms are taking place here without too radical complications. Social tension is removed with the help of ideology. It is evolving today towards patriotism. For this reason, reforms are not accompanied by a crisis, but by stabilization and even prosperity. But the logic of modern economic development requires the inevitable reform of the political system, the development of elements of civil society that are increasingly incompatible with the totalitarian political mechanism.

In the 1990s, power passed to a third generation of leaders - mostly civilians (Jiang Zemin - Secretary General of the CCP and head of state, Deng's "heir" after his death in February 1997 ᴦ.). Now the leadership of the CCP is all pragmatists who advocate reform. They are separated only by questions - for whom are the reforms and at what pace? Political reforms rely on stability and continuity in politics, smoothing out sharp corners, and ideological control in culture. The problems remain freedom of speech, human rights and the exercise of political freedoms, corruption in the highest echelons of power and the state apparatus, its reduction, hidden and open unemployment (4%), and the growth of social differentiation. Since 1995 ᴦ. the problem of reforming state-owned enterprises has aggravated (the share of unprofitable in the public sector has grown to 40-50%, while it accounts for 40% in the economy).

In the early 1980s, there was talk in China of a peaceful international environment, which was required for the implementation of economic reforms. In the 1980s and 1990s, China was guided by the principle: "There are no permanent friends or permanent enemies, but only permanent interests!" They began to assess Soviet foreign policy more calmly, demonstrate commonality with developing countries, and intensified criticism of US policy in the world. The main goal was declared to be the struggle against any hegemonism, a course was taken to develop relations with the maximum possible number of states, statements appeared that a world war could and should be prevented. Since the mid-1980s, China has proclaimed peace and development in a multipolar world as its goal, put forward the principle of de-ideologization and the concept of an independent foreign policy. Since 1988 ᴦ. Soviet-Chinese relations are completely normalized, their balancing with the United States has begun, Western Europe is seen as a new source of advanced technology and finance. In the first half of the 1990s, the activity of Chinese diplomacy increased: relations with India, Vietnam, Cuba were normalized, they have a “special character” with Japan and South Korea, and contacts with Israel and South Africa expanded. Since 1991 ᴦ. China has acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. On the whole, the success of Chinese diplomacy has given rise to calling our century "the century of Chinese diplomacy."

Relations with the USSR and Russia are based on universal principles: respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, non-aggression and non-intervention, equality and mutual benefit. The settlement of the border issue has been completed, a zone of confidence has been created with the states of Central Asia, and a joint declaration on strategic partnership in the 21st century has been adopted. (spring 1997 ᴦ.). Trade turnover with Russia is scheduled to increase by 2010 ᴦ. 4 times. In 1992 ᴦ. established diplomatic relations with the Republic of Belarus, which served as the basis for trade and economic cooperation. In 1997 ᴦ. the unification of Hong Kong with China according to the formula "one state - two systems" was completed, and a high degree of interdependence of the two economies was achieved. In 1999 ᴦ. Macao returned to China. Tensions remain with Taiwan due to differing approaches to reunification.

Tasks for the topic:

1. Name the years of the civil war in China after World War II, the main political forces. What are its results?

2. What options for the development of China existed after the end of the Civil War?

3. What role did Mao Zedong's victory in the domestic political struggle play in China's development? (economic, political and foreign policy spheres).

4. Expand the concept of "policy of the great leap" (when, essence, results).

5. Expand the concept of "cultural revolution" (years, essence, results).

6. How did China's relations with the USSR change in the late 1950s? What is it connected with? Describe Soviet-Chinese relations in the 60-80s?

7. The results of the reign of Mao Zedong in China (by spheres).

8. What are the ways to overcome the consequences of the policy of M. Zedong?

9. Make a thesis plan "The development of China in the 1990-2000s."

Topic 15: "India in the second half of the 20th century."

Plan.

China at the present stage.

By the end of World War II, there actually existed two Chinas: the territories controlled by the Kuomintang and the liberated areas ruled by the CPC (1/4 of the country's territory). Despite the negotiations (August 1945 - January 1946), hostilities between them continued, which created the threat of an all-Chinese civil war. The decision to form a provisional coalition government (January 1946) could become the basis for the peaceful unification and democratization of China, however, they were thwarted by the leaders of the Kuomintang, who launched an offensive in Northeast China in the spring of 1946.

In the course of the civil war, the crisis of the Kuomintang regime deepened, its anti-national character manifested itself, and the discontent of the masses and the national bourgeoisie increased. The liberated areas were fortified. The agrarian reform of the CPC secured the support of the peasants, and the People's Liberation Army (PLA) grew and strengthened. These factors led to a turn in the course of the war in favor of the revolutionary forces. In the context of the military successes of the CPC in 1947-1948, the Central Committee of the Party put forward the task of completing the people's democratic revolution, overthrowing the Kuomintang dictatorship and creating a democratic coalition government. The CPC supported the formation of a united people's democratic front from various classes.

As a result of three major battles in Northeast, North and East China (autumn 1948 - January 1949), the Kuomintang regime faced collapse. He lost over one and a half million soldiers and officers and vast territories. In April 1949, the PLA troops resumed their offensive, crossed the Yangtze River and liberated South and Southwest China. The proclamation of the People's Republic of China (October 1, 1949) was a victory for the people's democratic revolution. It created the prerequisites for strengthening the country's independence and completing the bourgeois-democratic reforms. The question of power was decided in favor of a united front led by the CPC.

Under the new conditions (1949-1957) there was an intensification of the struggle within the CPC over the issues of the country's development after the seizure of power. The political position of Mao Zedong changed - he believed that the time had come for the implementation of the goals of the communist movement, for the implementation of what was essentially a communist barracks utopia. However, many party leaders (Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping, Zhou Enlai, and others) spoke in favor of using the concept of "new democracy", designed to renew China over a rather long period of time.

At that time, the revolutionary forces were solving tasks: completing the defeat of the Kuomintang troops, establishing power in the southern and western regions and on the islands, fighting counter-revolutionary bands, and creating an apparatus for a new state power. By the middle of 1950, almost the entire territory of China had been liberated; in 1951, the PLA entered Tibet. The remnants of Chiang Kai-shek's troops fled to the island of Taiwan.

The restoration of the PRC economy took place in line with market (albeit limited) processes, in the conditions of a multi-structural economy. Small-scale production prevailed, the property of the national bourgeoisie was preserved, and as a result of the nationalization of the property of big capital and the Japanese imperialists, the state sector was formed. The policy of the CCP was to simultaneously with the restoration of the economy, relying on the economic assistance of the USSR (the slogan "Learning from the USSR"), to strengthen the public sector, capable of ensuring the transition to the construction of socialism. Thus, by 1952, the restructuring of the structure of the economy began (the production of means of production accounted for 40%). The policy towards the national bourgeoisie was to use private capital to rebuild the economy and increase control over it. As a result of the agrarian reform (1950-1953), landlordism was abolished, the influence of the kulaks was undermined, and cooperation began to develop.

Successes in the restoration of the national economy were used by Mao to impose on the party his leftist, adventurist views on the accelerated modernization of China. In 1953, Mao spoke for the first time in favor of an immediate transition to a socialist revolution. His opponents continued to uphold the sustained general line for a long transition to socialism (1953-1967), gradually completing the transformation of agriculture, industry and trade.

Mao's ideological and political victory in the intra-Party struggle led to fundamental changes in the social and economic policy of the CCP, and above all in the agrarian sector: a grain monopoly and a rationing system were introduced. China has made a sharp turn to the path of command-administrative functioning of the national economy and has done so in the shortest possible time. In 1955, the CCP switched to village cooperatives, its pace was sharply intensified, and a transition was made to cooperatives of a higher type. The CPC persistently searched for ways of social and political control over the peasantry.

By the end of 1956, 96.3% of farms were involved in cooperatives (according to the plan - 33%), including 88% of the highest type. This major social event aroused the resistance of the peasants. In 1956, a complete transformation of industry and trade into state-capitalist ones was launched, and in fact, the nationalization of private enterprises for ransom was carried out. In retail trade, the share of private capital by the end of 1956 was only 3%. Thus, radical socio-economic changes took place throughout the country - private property was eliminated and market relations were sharply limited.

The implementation of reforms in the first half of the 1950s revealed such features in the policy of the CPC as the idea of the decisive role of political and ideological campaigns, military-administrative methods, the acceleration of the pace of reforms and the violation of gradualness, lack of experience and personnel, unpreparedness for governing a huge country, forced the nature of the measures, the lack of a technical basis for increasing labor productivity. A feature of the entire political development of the PRC was the ever-increasing implantation of the ideas and personality cult of Mao Zedong. A system of ideological control and political manipulation is taking shape in society, campaigns are being carried out to re-educate the intelligentsia, and ideas about the intensification of the class struggle are being imposed. Within the CPC, the clash of two ideological and political tendencies continued - the moderately pragmatic and the radical utopian.

Orientation towards friendship with the USSR became the main feature of China's foreign policy. In 1950, an agreement on friendship, alliance and mutual assistance was signed, an agreement on the gratuitous transfer of the rights of the USSR to manage the CER. The help of the USSR played a big role in the construction of a new state and in the restoration of the national economy.

In the late 1950s, the country became an arena for Mao's risky experiments to accelerate the development of socialist processes. The first of these was the "Great Leap Forward in Industry and Agriculture" (1958), during which Mao sought to oppose the new course of the CPSU (after the 20th Congress) with his own political line. Its essence is to get ahead of time and overtake the USSR in building a new life. Unable to create a developed economic base in the country in a short time, Mao decided to reduce the leap into the future to the reform of human relations, to the stimulation of labor enthusiasm in conditions of an egalitarian life, barracks forms of existence and with an extreme degree of officialization of life. In the "people's communes" industry, agriculture, trade, education and military affairs were combined, labor and the main means of production, all the property of the peasants were socialized, an equal distribution of income was introduced, the principle of material interest and distribution according to work was eliminated. The enthusiasm of the working people was fueled by the slogan "Three years of hard work - ten thousand years of happiness."

The results showed up quickly. Already at the end of 1956 and even more acutely in 1959, the country began to experience hunger. The labor activity of the peasants deprived of land and any property has decreased. Production was disorganized, not only in the countryside, but also in the city. The principle of planning in industry has been violated, disproportions have formed in the economy, equipment has been destroyed, and people's enthusiasm has been wasted.

There were also changes in the foreign policy course. The People's Republic of China claimed a special role in Asia and throughout the world. In 1959, incidents began on the Sino-Indian border, shelling of islands in the Taiwan Strait. The PRC abandoned friendship with the USSR (in 1960, Soviet specialists were recalled), the slogan "self-reliance" began to be promoted, which meant the intention to cut ties with the socialist countries, oppose the policy of peaceful coexistence and the possibility of preventing a world war.

At the turn of the 1960s, another grouping of the CPC (“pragmatists”) managed to somewhat improve the situation in the country. But the conflict between Mao and her leaders (Peng Dehuai, Deng Xiaoping) did not stop. In the first half of the 60s, a struggle for the army unfolded, army methods of work were introduced everywhere.

By 1965, disagreements within the leadership of the CPC had become very acute. They concerned the methods, goals and prospects for the development of the PRC, its domestic and foreign policy. The conflict led to a new grandiose social experiment - to the "cultural revolution", under the banner of which a decade passed - the last in Mao's life (1966-1976). It was a struggle for elusive power. Its meaning was reduced to the desire to reckon with the party that interfered with him and questioned his actions, which led to the pogroms of party bodies, the apparatus of power and the entire intelligentsia by detachments of the Red Guards - hunveibins ("red guards"). The latter sacredly believed in the leader deified by them and faithfully carried out his instructions. In the country, instead of democracy, a military-bureaucratic dictatorship was being established with reliance on the army, the Maoist "model of communism" was being affirmed, and the real threat of civil war was growing. The regime of Mao's personal and unlimited power was taking shape, and the traditions of "oriental despotism" were openly revived. The Cultural Revolution cost the country dearly and led the Chinese economy to a deep crisis.

China's internal development determined the nature of its foreign policy. From the 1960s to the beginning of the 1980s, tensions persisted in relations with the USSR, their struggle on a global scale. The number of incidents on the border grew (1967, 1969), claims were put forward for Soviet territory and the thesis about a “threat from the North”. The great-power, nationalist nature of China's policy was manifested. A serious conflict broke out with India (1962), tension arose on the Burmese border, and relations with Vietnam deteriorated sharply (1978). By the beginning of the 70s, the USSR was declared enemy No. 1, preparation for war became the main goal of economic construction. China went to rapprochement with the United States (1976), put forward the goal of creating a "broad international front" against the USSR.

Mao's experiments demonstrated that a Stalinist model was created in China with the rigid power of the classical Eastern type, with the restriction of individual rights and freedoms and the omnipotence of a bureaucratic administration based on powerful ideological pressure. This was facilitated by: the habit of the Chinese to respect a strong personality and a stable administration, habitually dismissive attitude towards merchants and owners, private traders, a high level of social discipline, and a willingness to honor the elders and the wise. An important role was played by the power and authority of the authorities, the style of internal party struggle in the CPC - the fear of a split in the party dictated a tendency to compromise, disagreements did not become open. However, this model did not give the desired results; on the contrary, it turned out to be destructive.

Mao's successors in 1976 - 1978 faced an acute problem: how to get out of the impasse? A sharp political and ideological struggle of factions unfolded in the party. The radical "four" supporters of the continuation of Mao's course were defeated and arrested. "Pragmatists" were strengthened in leadership positions. The failure of the economic activities of these years convinced them of the need for deep structural reforms for China. A powerful campaign began under the slogan - "practice is the only criterion of truth." The Plenum of the CPC Central Committee (December 1978) was a complete victory for Deng's supporters, he sanctioned the reforms.

The essence of the economic reforms was simple: the way was opened for the return of the interest of the worker in the fruits of his labor, for which the communes were liquidated, and the land was given to the peasants. Tens of thousands of markets have emerged, commerce is officially legalized. Since 1984, the reform has embraced the city: the role of the State Planning Commission and central regulation has been severely limited, and opportunities have been created for the development of the cooperative-collective and individual sectors. Directors of state-owned enterprises were given broad rights and opportunities. The reforms were radical and carried out quickly and decisively, the first three years (1979-1981) were declared the years of reconstruction, and the planned targets were removed. Appropriations for military needs have been drastically reduced, the army has been reduced, and the military industry has been made responsible for assisting in the restructuring of the economy. The powers of administrative bodies, including party committees, are significantly limited.

The results of the reforms were felt so quickly that it surprised the whole world. Food production increased sharply: by 1984 the country reached the level of 400 million tons of grain per year, which is quite enough to provide its population (1 billion 300 million) with the necessary minimum of food. The average living standard of the peasantry has grown 2-3 times. There were layers of wealthy peasants and townspeople working for the market. The industry turned its face to the domestic market. The general standard of people's behavior has also changed: they have become freer, personal tastes, preferences, changes in clothing (the uniform of Mao's time has disappeared), behavior, way of thinking, striving for the foundations of the rule of law have appeared.

But there were obstacles in the way of reforms. The party apparatus accustomed to power resisted. There were negative phenomena caused by the market economy (abuse of power, corruption, smuggling, inflation, social tension between the poor and the rich, especially in the countryside). However, against the backdrop of successes and high average growth rates (since 1979, economic growth rates were 12-18% per year), they were officially recognized only as unfortunate development costs. The CPC congresses fully and unreservedly supported the reform course taken by Deng Xiaoping and largely successfully implemented thanks to his leadership. Ideologically, it was justified by the official recognition that China is a backward developing country and that it is too early to talk about the serious construction of socialism. So far, China is at the initial stage of building socialism, and socialism with Chinese characteristics. It was believed that the chosen development model with a significant inclusion of elements of a market economy, a significant role of the privatized sector working for the free market, corresponded to this. By the end of the 1980s, reforms led the country to high achievements.

But the rapid pace of economic reform led to unexpected socio-political and ideological problems. In 1987, for the first time, they started talking about restructuring the political system (they introduced the principle of turnover and rejuvenation of leaders). A balanced attitude towards Mao is maintained, although his cult was first recognized and condemned in 1981. In an attempt to solve problems, the country's leadership at the turn of the 1980s and 1990s began to move backward. The implementation of the reform meant the collapse of the Maoist regime. However, the communists could not actively support the formation of private capital. Since 1989, they have clearly seen the example of the USSR, which embarked on the path of structural adjustment and rapidly acquired a state of instability. In addition, they felt that any relaxation in the socio-political and ideological sphere would mean a course not only towards destabilization, but also the rapid collapse of the country. They did not forget about the responsibility that each of those involved in power after that would have to bear.

Thus, the authoritarian regime and command-administrative forms of control over the country had to leave the political scene for the sake of economic development along the market path. The unusual thing about China is that by the turn of the 1980s and 1990s the economic mechanism had unwinded, and the communist leaders associated with the old regime did not want to deepen democratic reforms. The result was the effect of an overheated boiler.

"Overheating of the economy" began to be felt from the mid-80s. At the end of the 1980s, the demands for democratization and the departure of the CPC leadership from power became louder, and influential persons in the leadership (CPC General Secretaries Hu Yaobang, Zhao Ziyang) listened to them. However, the General Secretaries of the CPC did not have all the power - the real power continued to remain in the hands of the architect of reforms, Deng Xiaoping, who had formally departed from it. Deng hesitated for a long time, because he understood that the demand for political reforms was reasonable and just. But he was also aware of something else - agreeing to radical political reforms (following the example of the USSR and Eastern Europe) would lead the regime to collapse with unpredictable consequences. The choice was made in favor of the lesser evil. The student democratic movement that spilled out into the streets and squares of Beijing in the summer of 1989 was crushed by tanks on Tiananmen Square. Students were sent to universities for ideological re-education. Again the communist reactionaries raised their heads. Democrats were reproached for being supporters of bourgeois liberalism, which was true (in the early 1990s, this term even became an ideological stigma). The defeat of the democratic movement for a long time removed the question of carrying out political reforms and democratization of the political structure.

After 1989, the economy continued to develop, albeit at a more restrained pace. The demand for the preservation and improvement of "socialism with Chinese characteristics" was affirmed. After the collapse of the USSR, the communist leaders congratulated each other on the choice of 1989. Today, there are two groups in the CPC on the implementation of this concept - radicals (supporters of spasmodic development) and conservatives (evolutionary path). In fact, the Chinese concept

it is a common path for the entire developing world. Emphasizing your specificity is camouflage in order to buy time and prevent a social explosion. China is following the path of bourgeois liberalism, but the leadership, on which this primarily depends, wants this to happen as slowly and smoothly as possible. To accelerate the pace, a generation of veterans of wars and revolutions needs to leave.

In the 1990s, after the first successes of the "settlement" policy (1989-1991), the following directions of economic reform were outlined: the restructuring of state enterprises, the introduction of joint stock ownership, price reform, the privatization of housing, and the creation of a social security system. The CPC congresses (1992, 1997) carried out a decisive turn towards the market, for which all ideological barriers were removed (the task of creating a "socialist market economy" was approved instead of the controversial term "planned commodity economy"). In 1999, the Constitution was amended to recognize the important role of the private sector in China's socialist market economy. The 1990s were seen as an opportunity for a breakthrough. The expansion of the policy of openness to the outside world (free and specialized, border open zones, development and free trade zones) is emphasized. In the 1980s and 1990s, China became one of the most important pillars of the economic structure of East Asia and the Asia-Pacific region, an important producer of finished products for the markets of industrial and developing countries. The country came out on top in the world in the production of grain, meat, cotton, coal, cement, cotton fabrics. Electronics, mechanical engineering, production of electricity, oil and chemical products are successfully developing. Exports increase by 25% annually. Particular emphasis is placed on the development of infrastructure. Having crossed the line of centuries, China has confidently entered a new stage of modernization - GDP amounted to 8.3% (2000), the average per capita income of citizens was $760, peasants - $273. with the requirements of the market and the reform of public sector enterprises.

In domestic politics, the parliamentary multi-party system and the existence of independent political parties claiming the role of political opposition, political pluralism are rejected, the leading role of public property is preserved, the concept of continuing the class struggle in some areas of society. The CCP did not go back to the 1987 decision to carry out political reform. She spoke only in favor of reforming the administrative apparatus and adapting the political system to the needs of economic development. The authority of the authorities is high, and it is no coincidence that the reforms are taking place here without too radical complications. Social tension is removed with the help of ideology. It is evolving today towards patriotism. Therefore, reforms are not accompanied by a crisis, but by stabilization and even prosperity. But the logic of modern economic development requires the inevitable reform of the political system, the development of elements of civil society that are increasingly incompatible with the totalitarian political mechanism.

In the 1990s, power passed to a third generation of leaders - mostly civilians (Jiang Zemin - CCP Secretary General and head of state, Deng's "heir" after his death in February 1997). Now the leadership of the CCP is all pragmatists who advocate reform. They are separated only by questions - for whom are the reforms and at what pace? Political reforms rely on stability and continuity in politics, smoothing out sharp corners, and ideological control in culture. The problems remain freedom of speech, human rights and the exercise of political freedoms, corruption in the highest echelons of power and the state apparatus, its reduction, hidden and open unemployment (4%), and the growth of social differentiation. Since 1995, the problem of reforming state-owned enterprises has become more acute (the share of unprofitable enterprises in the state sector has grown to 40-50%, while it accounts for 40% in the economy).

In the early 1980s, there was talk in China of a peaceful international environment, which was required for the implementation of economic reforms. In the 1980s and 1990s, China was guided by the principle: "There are no permanent friends or permanent enemies, but only permanent interests!" They began to assess Soviet foreign policy more calmly, demonstrate commonality with developing countries, and intensified criticism of US policy in the world. The main goal was declared to be the struggle against any hegemonism, a course was taken to develop relations with the maximum possible number of states, statements appeared that a world war could and should be prevented. Since the mid-1980s, China has proclaimed peace and development in a multipolar world as its goal, put forward the principle of de-ideologization and the concept of an independent foreign policy. Since 1988, Soviet-Chinese relations have been completely normalized, their balancing with the United States has begun, and Western Europe is seen as a new source of advanced technology and finance. In the first half of the 1990s, the activity of Chinese diplomacy increased: relations with India, Vietnam, Cuba were normalized, they have a “special character” with Japan and South Korea, and contacts with Israel and South Africa expanded. Since 1991, China has acceded to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. On the whole, the success of Chinese diplomacy has given rise to calling our century "the century of Chinese diplomacy."

Relations with the USSR and Russia are based on universal principles: respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, non-aggression and non-intervention, equality and mutual benefit. The settlement of the border issue has been completed, a zone of confidence has been created with the states of Central Asia, and a joint declaration on strategic partnership in the 21st century has been adopted. (spring 1997). Trade turnover with Russia is planned to be quadrupled by 2010. In 1992, diplomatic relations were established with the Republic of Belarus, which served as the basis for trade and economic cooperation. In 1997, the unification of Hong Kong with China according to the formula "one state - two systems" was completed, and a high degree of interdependence of the two economies was achieved. In 1999, Macau (Aomyn) returned to China. Tensions remain with Taiwan due to different approaches to reunification.