Of all the military actions born of chivalry, military enterprises corresponded more than others to the daring and romantic nature of the knights. We have already seen that young men newly knighted, in order to avoid idleness in time of peace, set off to wander in foreign lands and visit the courts of kings and the most famous princes. It was not always possible for them to help the oppressed or to bring the enterprise to the end, especially when sovereigns got the opportunity to administer justice in person or through judges appointed by them. For lack of adventure, the brave ones invented them: they promulgated that at the appointed place and at the appointed time they would fight with everyone under such and such conditions to maintain the dignity of their people, the honor of their king and the glory of their weapons. This proposal was called an enterprise (emprise), and its execution was called a military feat, a duel (pas d "armes), because usually it consisted in defending the passage either on the bridge, or on the road, or even in the square.

When the challenge containing the terms of the battle was made public, the defending knights began to flock to the appointed place. There, having approved their banner, they hung shields decorated with their emblems and mottos on trees or on specially placed pillars, and forced all knights who wanted to pass by to fight or break spears with them. If several knights entered into an alliance to protect the passage, then as many shields were hung as there were knights; in order not to arouse envy, a passing knight touched one of the shields with a spear, and the owner of the shield had to fight.

The promulgated challenge soon reached distant lands, and therefore the knights, who wanted to fight the defenders of the passage, and the ladies, who longed for such spectacles, usually offered in their honor, quickly gathered from all over. On the appointed day, fights began in the morning and took part of the day. They fought either with sharp weapons or blunt spears, according to the conditions of the challenge or permission received from the sovereigns on whose land the duel took place. Most often, the vanquished was obliged to give the winner as a guarantee of victory either a gold ring, or a seal, or fur, or some precious stone. Sometimes the conditions of the duel consisted in the fact that the vanquished was obliged to go into captivity to the sovereign of the winner and there, recognizing himself defeated, fall at the feet of the sovereign and remain a prisoner for as long as the sovereign wanted. In these cases, the kings usually used their right, as generously as possible; they caressed, consoled and honored the knights thus sent to them.

During duels, the breaking of the spear was renewed daily; every day the battles were followed by dances, concerts, games and feasts, offered by the knights to all spectators on the banks of the river, on the edge of the forest, on the slope of the hill, because the fights always took place near forests, waters and mountains, not only in order to be in a picturesque area , but also in order to breathe the air, to freshen up under the shade of trees, near flowing waters, so that crowds of spectators would more conveniently group and rest on the slopes of the mountains.

These fights in peacetime were ubiquitous. Description of them can be found in chivalric novels, but unfortunately there is so much magical and wonderful in these novels that it seems that the authors cared not so much about describing the customs and real life of knights, but about giving rampant to their imagination. However, one of these novels, leaving aside impulses of the imagination, gives us such details about knightly adventures that are certain, or at least probable, because they agree with history and modern customs. Therefore, we can close the chapter with some passages from this novel in the edition of the Comte de Tressan (le comte de Tressan): they will complement what we have said about knightly enterprises.

The young Saintre, the page of King John, having passed all the lower positions, reached the rank of squire poursuivant d "ames. In an effort to mark himself with some brilliant feat, in order to get a knighthood as soon as possible, he asked the king for permission to embark on enterprises and travel around foreign courts The king, who loved him very much, answered: "How, my friend Sentre, you want to leave my court at a time when I especially pity you! But," the good sovereign added, "I cannot condemn you, I do not want to refuse you in the opportunity to justify my feelings for you and acquire the right to knight you.

Having received the permission of the king, Center began to actively prepare. At the same time, he was distinguished by splendor and luxury, worthy of the sovereign, whose subject he was. On the day of departure, he came to the king to say goodbye and receive royal letters of his military rank. It was the custom of the time for the monarch, his family, and the princes of the blood to give gifts to the young noble, if only his enterprise brought honor to the nation. Therefore, the king gave Center two thousand gold efimks from his treasury, the queen gave a thousand from hers, the dukes of Burgundy, Anjou and Berry the same amount, their spouses presented him with bracelets, diamond clasps, rings, precious stones for distribution at those courts where he would fight .

The young Center went to Spain. In all the cities on his way, they marveled at his beauty, feelings and generosity. He became even more generous when he crossed the border, where some adventures marked his dexterity and his courage. The Catalan knights, guarding the passes in the mountains, and defeated by his weapons, gifts and courtesy, preceded him to Barcelona, ​​where the local owners solemnly celebrated his arrival. Here he stopped for several days to fix and further decorate the train. From here he sent three heralds; the first was in a French suit, decorated with domestic attributes, and the other two were wearing his family dress and attributes. They were authorized to present the letters of the French king, who had released him, and together ask him for permission to introduce himself to the court of the king of Aragon, fall at his feet and throw down before him a certificate of his military rank. He was respected in everything, and a few days later he arrived in Pamplona, ​​where there was then a court and where the fame of the noble French poursuivant d "armes had already reached: he was met by many knights and ladies who were amazed by the splendor and grace of his train.

When he appeared at the foot of the throne, the monarch spoke to him warningly, asked about the brave knight who reigned in France, and added that he congratulated this knight on such a student. The most glorious knights were ready to challenge each other for honor, challenge (le delivrer), but they were forced to yield this right to Monsignor Engerand, the first of them and closest to the king; the king's niece was his wife. Immediately after the end of the royal audience, Engerand and all the nobility approached the Center with courtesy and frankness.

My brother, - said Engerand Sentra, holding out his hand, - do you accept my challenge?

I accept, - answered the Centre. “But I am ashamed that I have not deserved the honor you show me.

What would I not do, - objected Engerand, - for the student of such a great sovereign and for such a poursuivant d "armes, equally beautiful in the eyes of both our ladies and our gentlemen.

Then he embraces the Centre, leads him to the monarch, takes off his bracelet, calls Aragon, the first court herald, and gives him a bracelet with a precious ruby, which he then shows to the ladies and knights.

The next day was marked by a brilliant feast given by the Queen of Aragon. The center was distinguished by the elegance and brilliance that characterized the French court. The men liked him with noble courtesy, the ladies with respectful courtesy. This was the first honor rendered by him to his nation: the proud and just Aragonese could not but recognize the advantages of a French upbringing.

During the festivities, the arena was being prepared. Centra's letters said that the opponents on the first day should break five spears, and that the reward would go to the one who had the upper hand in at least something. The same letters said that the next day the opponents would fight on foot, with a sword, dagger and reed, and that the winner would receive a rich gift from the vanquished.

The king and queen with a large retinue honored the battle with their presence. Engerand exceeded the young Center by a whole head, his warlike appearance, his strength, his courage, tested in twenty battles, spoke for him, but the general voice was for Center.

The honor of the first three fights belonged to both opponents. On the fourth, it seemed that the advantage was on the side of Engerand, but on the fifth, it remained positively for Center. Engerand missed; The center, breaking his spear to the hilt, hit the visor and, without overturning the enemy at all, bent him back to the horse's sacrum.

The battle was stopped, the opponents were led to the royal balcony. Aragon, the first herald, proclaimed Centre the winner. Engerand took the ruby ​​and offered it to the Centre. Both were invited to the royal banquet and both were given great honors. The next day was the day of the national festival.

On the third day, the trumpets announced a battle more important than ever; the arena was narrowed down for foot combat. This battle was long and stubborn, and the end was terrible. The young Sentre, dropping the reed, managed to take up the sword and for a long time repelled Engerand's blows with it. Deftly evading and parrying the blows, he chose a favorable moment and delivered such a strong blow to the enemy’s wrist that if it weren’t for the strength of the bracers, he might have cut off Engerand’s hand, from which the reed flew out several steps. At this time, Sentre quickly grabbed his reed, hit him in Engerand's visor, and stepped on his reed with one jump. Engerand, in despair that he was disarmed, jumped up to Sentra, tightly squeezed him in his arms and tried in vain to knock him to the ground: Sentre, for his part, embracing the enemy with his left hand, raised a reed above him, but did not hit; he contented himself with not letting him grab his hand. The king of Aragon, who wished to end this dangerous battle, raised his staff. The judges stopped the opponents and easily parted them. Engerand, raising his visor, exclaimed:

Noble Frenchman, my brave brother Centre, you have defeated me a second time.

Oh, what are you saying, - objected the Center with liveliness, - am I not defeated by you, because my reed fell before?

During this noble dispute, they were brought to the royal balcony; the king came down to embrace both. While the heralds were collecting votes to proclaim the winner, Center slipped away from the crowd surrounding him, flew up to the king of arms, took his bracelet from him and, laying down his arms, offered it to Engerand as his winner, wanting to forestall the cry of the heralds. But Engerand, not accepting a pledge, gave him his sword with a hilt. As soon as the king stopped these noble impulses, deciding that Center should keep his bracelet, he rushed to the queen's balcony and, kneeling before Madame Eleanor, begged her to accept the bracelet as the price of the victory won by her husband. There was a cry of surprise; the queen herself came to pick him up from her knees and decided that Eleanor should accept this rich gift out of courtesy and to honor the one who has such an exalted soul - Eleanor yielded, but immediately removing the diamond thread from her neck said:

Senor, it would be unfair to leave you without a sign of your victory.

The king himself helped to remove the weapons from both knights. Sentre, noticing that Engerand was wounded, grabbed his bloodied dagger and kissed the blood on it, shedding tears.

The hero's light wound did not prevent him from participating in the feast that followed the battle; the king seated Center and Eleanor beside him, and the queen showed this honor to Engerand. The day was marked by many celebrations and the Center was constantly the object of the most flattering attention. Hurrying to return to France, Center took leave of the king and queen of Aragon, tenderly embraced Monsignor Engerand, swore to him unchanging friendship, and set off on his return journey. In Paris, King John gave him the most flattering reception; the old knights and all the ladies of the court greeted the young poursuivant d "armes with applause, the best reward for the winner.

A month later, on his return from Spain, Center had a new opportunity to commemorate his valor before the eyes of the king himself and the whole court. One of the most famous Polish palatines, accompanied by four no less noble nobles, arrived in Paris to admire the court of King John. All five, having accomplished the same military feat, wore a golden thread on their arm and a chain on their legs, which, however, did not interfere with freedom of movement. They begged the monarch to allow them to remain at his court until an equal number of knights presented themselves to fight them.

The splendor and graceful simplicity of the costume of the Polish nobles amazed the entire French court. A silk semi-caftan with gold, embracing the waist, reached the knees; on the side, on a belt studded with precious stones, hung a wide curved saber; light boots adorned with golden spurs, a hat pulled down over the forehead with a sheaf of heron feathers that seemed to come out of a pile of diamonds, a long purple mantle lined with sable or Astrakhan lambskin, falling to the feet and fastened on the right shoulder with a precious cufflink - in this simple and the noble attire of the palatine combined the warlike appearance of the northern warriors with the splendor of the nobles of the south. The courtesy and simplicity of their manners were soon understood, despite their proud and even slightly stern appearance.

Many young knights and squires poursuivant d "armes hurried to put their names on the list of those who wanted to fight, which the two marshals of France were to present to the king. It is believed that Center was not the last to seek this honor, and King John without hesitation appointed him the first of five for a duel with foreign knights.

The celebration was magnificent. The center was the first to kindly ask the palatine-prince whether he agreed to engage in battle with him. The prince, knowing about the fame of the Center, considered it a special honor to choose the French monarch. He gently held Center in his arms as he bent down to remove the chain and gold thread.

The stadium was arranged near the palace of St. Paul on the vast field of St. Catherine. The battle lasted two days with equal honor for both sides. However, Center felt his superiority over a courageous opponent. But he did not take advantage of this, and on the first day he was content with the advantage that honor demanded, and on the second day, out of delicacy, he subjected himself to the most dangerous test. The proud and brave palatine, who had studied from childhood the art of fighting with his curved saber, might have won a decisive victory, if not for the extraordinary dexterity with which the Center avoided and repelled the opponent's blows. Sentre, constantly cold-blooded, which irritated the enemy, for a long time only parried blows. Knowing from experience that humility strikes a good soul, he skillfully kept up the fight until the hour appointed for its end. Noticing that the prince's hand was weakened and delivered false blows, he set his horse galloping and, grabbing the prince's horse by the sacrum, so deftly hit the saber that it flew out of his hand. Then he easily jumped off his horse, raised his saber, took off his helmet, threw off his bracers and hurried to bring the saber to the palatine. The Polish prince, enchanted by the grace and delicacy of the Center, quickly jumped off his horse to take up his saber and embrace such a worthy opponent, generously confessing his defeat. King John had already stepped down from the balcony and was embracing both fighters; squeezing the Centre, he felt the tender and lively affection of his father.

What did the good-natured King John and his noble, cheerful and helpful court not invent at that time to alleviate the sadness of the Polish nobles after their defeat. Departing for the banks of the Vistula, they generously rewarded Center, who had seen them off all day, with rich gifts and caresses.

A little later, a simple courier brought the news to the French monarch that twelve British knights had crossed the sea and, after spending some time at Calais, refused to obey the accepted customs, that they did not want to come to court, decided not to do anything that would oblige them to send a herald and they will not even accept a herald from that sovereign who is not recognized as the king of France, since he was the son of Philip of Valois. Their king is known to have contested the French crown in vain. Therefore, the British knights stopped only at the turn of their territory, built a tower, pitched tents, hung their twelve armorial shields on them and decided to wait for the French knights who would dare to touch their shields.

Such news aroused the indignation of the French chivalry and kindled hatred between both nations. Many knights asked permission to punish British pride. They assembled in twelves at the port of Ambletaise, from whence, not inquiring as to the number of opponents, they went to remove their shields with a certainty that does not understand danger. None of them had success in breaking the spear, which the British nobility had constantly practiced since the days of the Knights of the Round Table. Such offensive news was soon learned in Paris. King John looked at the Center and it seemed to him that the honor of the nation had already been avenged. The centre, inflamed by the gaze of the sovereign, embraced the knees of the monarch and flew to glory.

He set off, accompanied by knights of tested affection and courage, arrived at the place and removed the shields; the British came out of their tents fully armed and, thinking to fight a weak enemy, were not afraid to point to the French weapons lying in the dust. Filled with justified indignation, Center and his comrades struck at the British with fury. The latter soon yielded: spears, reeds, swords were equally disastrous for them; The center overturned five with the weight of his blows. Finally, they were forced to beg for mercy.

Center, having taken possession of their shields and banners, ordered the French to be picked up and placed with honors on the platform. He neglected the horses, and, sending the British to Calais, told them that he would remain in this very place for three days, ready to defend himself against anyone who would attack him from Calais. But three days passed, not a single British knight showed up. Then he destroyed the platform and, quickly returning, entered Paris at the cries of a large crowd. The shields were thrown down at the feet of the king. The monarch immediately rewarded the winner: on the very next day, a large society was scheduled to gather and Center was awarded the knighthood.

However, military exploits were usually undertaken by simple knights, lovers of adventure, and were not accompanied by either pomp or solemnity of tournaments.

Notes:

Lacurne de Sainte-Palaye, Memoire sur l "ancienne chevalerie.

Delivrer un poursuivant d "armes de son entreprise - a technical expression that meant a challenge. It consisted in the fact that the caller politely or forcibly took from the poursuivant d" armes the sign he constantly wore: ring, bracelet, bandage, etc.

Madame Eleanor, niece of the King of Aragon, Princess of Corduana, one of the most charming Spanish ladies, was the wife of Engerand.

From the history…

We recall one of the longest-lived legends in world literature - the legend of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. Be it a true story or a fairy tale, it was one way or another, and each singer will add something new to the song and the history is overgrown with rumors, and the land of the Britons is full of legends. They sing, they say, King Uther Pendragon lived in the world and he fell in love with the beautiful Igraine. And they conceived a son. Thus begins the legend of King Arthur.

The sorcerer Merlin carried away the baby born to Igraine and gave it to the glorious Sir Ector to raise him as his own son. And for a long time it remained a secret for the noble sir that the son of the king was growing up with his son in his castle, but the old knight remembered that he had received this young man as a baby from the hands of a great sorcerer and, therefore, a great fate was destined for him. So Arthur grew up in Sir Ector's castle and comprehended the science of chivalry. And when he was seventeen, King Pendragon died, and the barons were agitated, for many of them wanted to take the throne. But on Christmas eve a miracle happened in London and a block of marble appeared in the courtyard of the greatest temple, and on it stood a steel anvil, and under the anvil a wonderful sword. Like a blue fire, his blade burned and golden letters crowded around: "Whoever pulls this sword out from under the anvil, that is the king over all the land of England." And so it happened that Arthur took out this sword and the most worthy of the knights of Britain knighted him and he was crowned in London. It was not easy for Arthur to hold the throne, and in many battles his magic sword Excalibur and the enchanted scabbard saved him from wounds. But the steel strikes the coward and the brave alike, and the time has come for Arthur to think about an heir. And then Arthur marries the beautiful Lady Guinevere to make her his queen. Together with her dowry, the king gets the castle of Camelot, along with the famous Round Table. There Arthur gathered all the brave and devoted knights of his kingdom, and on the seat of each his name was written in golden letters. It is not known what kind of power was contained in this table, but as soon as the knights gathered around it once, they became like brothers, and no matter what feat they were going to, they could do it all. There Merlin taught knights not to commit murder, cruelty or evil, to avoid betrayal, lies and dishonor, to grant mercy to the one who asks and, above all, to show respect and patronage to women. From Camelot, the knights set out to fight dragons, giants, and cunning dwarfs. These encounters with the forces of evil usually took place in enchanted castles, dark forests, or magical gardens. Many feats were performed by the knights for the glory of Britain and King Arthur, and the most important feat beckoned them - to find the unattainable Holy Grail. And from now on, we will join the brotherhood of the Knights of the Round Table and great feats and amazing adventures, jousting tournaments and noble battles await us, and we can only hope that at the end of the path we will see the light of the Holy Grail.

What to wear to training:

For young men: a "shield" on the shoulder and a weapon (preferably a sword), for girls - a mantle.

Each unit has its own color (this color should be a "shield" and a mantle):

Symbolism of color

• Gold - the king of metals, symbolizes nobility, power and wealth, as well as virtues: faith, justice, mercy and humility.
• Silver - symbolizes nobility, frankness, as well as purity, innocence and truthfulness.
• Scarlet (red) - symbolizes courage, courage, love.
• Azure (blue) - symbolizes generosity, honesty, loyalty and impeccability.
• Greenery symbolizes hope, abundance, freedom and joy.
• Purple - symbolizes piety, moderation, generosity.
• Niello is a symbol of caution, wisdom, constancy in trials.

Entertainment

• knight fights,
• role-playing games,
• intellectual contests,
• sport competitions

Events

• "Battle with the Normans" - business game
• "Knighting"
• "The Excalibur Show"
• "Castle Competition" - team competition
• "Merlin's Magic" and more

Tournament goal:

The search and acquisition of one's "knightly essence", the disclosure of internal resources through a meeting with magical assistants, the search for ways to protect and the adoption of the internal laws of the team and partnership laws of interaction

Which knights will want to sit at the Round Table? What kind of state will they create? By what laws will they decide to live? This is the choice of the players.

Training duration: 7 astronomical hours (including 5 hours of classes in the classroom, 2 hours of rope course with extreme elements)

Number of participants: from 15 to 30 people

Location: recreation center

Price: 3350 rub. per person

Included in the price:

• methodical notebook for each participant on the topic of the training
• rope course with extreme elements
• holding a tournament
• development of an ethical code of leaders
• information note to the management on the results of the training (analysis of problems, recommendations, brief characteristics of the participants)
• for each participant an album with photos (interesting moments from the training)
• certificate

The price does not include:

• transfer of training participants
• meals for the participants
• training venue rental

It is no coincidence that the previous part of the book ended with poetry - the artless and not very good "test of the pen" by Richard the Lionheart. Some, no, but still the royal lines became a small piece of literature of their time.

And the knightly ages are not only the crusades, the Knights Templar with its amazing secrets, the incessant competition of offensive and defensive weapons, the construction of impregnable castles, the puzzling science of heraldry and strict adherence to the knightly code. Like any other time, they left their own literary works - both poetic and prose. As at any other time, these works influenced the minds and hearts of the people for whom they were written, but also influenced the literature of subsequent centuries.

A little less famous are Jauffre Rudel, Bertrand de Born, Guillaume de Bergedan, En Blakats, Guy de Cavallon. And how many simple knights were among the troubadours, famous for their skillful verses! Name after name can be written out - Peire de Maensac, Raymond de Miraval, Berenguière de Palasol, Guillaume de Saint Leider, Guillaume de Montañagol, Yuk de Lobière, Ponce de Bruyelle, Rollent de Gassin, Savaric de Malleon...

Trained from childhood to wield weapons, accustomed to the blood and cruelty of battles, they felt in themselves, at the same time, a wonderful poetic gift. The verses they composed about the vicissitudes of love, about serving ladies, often windy and capricious, quickly became public property - they were sung in a singsong voice, to the accompaniment of some simple musical instrument, by professional singers, who at that time were called jugglers, moving from castle to castle , from city to city.

By the way, singing other people's songs for food, many of the jugglers composed their own, and thus became troubadours themselves.

And you can also find among these medieval poets many people about whom history has left such evidence, for example:

“The Monk of Montaudon was a nobleman from Auvergne from a castle called Vic, near Orlak, and was ordained as a monk in the abbey of Orlak. Even in the monastery, he began to compose poems and sirvents on the topic of the day, and the knights and lords of the district, having taken him from the monastery, began to show him all sorts of honors, giving him everything, whatever he liked and whatever he did not ask ... "

“Bernart of Ventandorn was from Limousin, from Ventandorn Castle. He was of a simple family, descended from a servant man and a baker ... However, no matter whose son he was, God gave him a handsome and pleasant appearance, and a noble heart, from which all nobility comes, and gave him mind, reason, and courtesy and sweet speech, and he also possessed the refined troubadour art of putting beautiful words into a cheerful tune ... "

“Folket of Marseilles was the son of a certain Genoese merchant named Messer Alfonso, who, after his death, left Folkett a very rich man. But he valued valor and glory more and began to serve with worthy seigneurs and valiant husbands, converging with them and bestowing them to please them. In troubadour art, he was very skillful and good-looking ... "

It is not difficult to understand: as in all times, in the era of chivalry, a poetic gift could descend on a person from any class. And as in all times, the living word of the troubadour poet meant a lot to society, and attracted many people to the author himself.

By the way, why, in fact, was the poet called a troubadour in knightly times? This word is still well known, but its original meaning has long been forgotten. Meanwhile, in Provençal it means approximately - "to find, invent, compose poetry." But chivalric poetry was born and flourished precisely in Provence in the 11th-13th centuries. Here, in the south of France, a special sophisticated culture developed, the cult of the Beautiful Lady, one of the most attractive manifestations of chivalry, was born.

In the north of France, poets were called trouvères, and this can be literally translated in much the same way.

How chivalric epic poems were created

But, of course, not only refined lyrics make up the literature of chivalrous times. And not only Provence and northern France outlined its borders. Remarkable works were created at the same time as the troubadours and trouvères, both before and after them. They were created everywhere - in other counties and duchies of France, in Spain, in Germany.

In early times, characterized by severe simplicity and more straightforward ideals, a huge number of epic poems were composed about battles, chivalrous fidelity to the lord given his word. Of course, not all of them have come down to us, because the poems were transmitted orally, like our Russian epics, and not all of them were written down in later times.

However, on the basis of just such oral creativity of anonymous authors, constantly modifying, supplementing each other or, conversely, omitting something in the course of each new subsequent retelling, such masterpieces as the “Song of Roland” in France, “The Song of Nibelungen" in Germany, "Song of my Sid" in Spain.

The plots of the earliest works of this kind were unpretentious. Usually it was based on some real event, gradually acquiring facts relating to other times, to other heroes, and in the end taking on completely fantastic outlines.

The volumes of these naive heroic poems are different - from 1000 to 20000 lines. Initially, they kept only on rhythm, but gradually, over the course of decades, subsequent performers, who, of course, should be called co-authors, tried to look for rhymes for lines. And once invented by someone, a poem spread farther and farther through the duchies and counties, translated into other languages, becoming more and more unrecognizable.

The performance of one or another such work was an event for a medieval city or castle. Stopping on the main city square, the juggler attracted attention, gathering around him at first a small, but ever-increasing circle of listeners. When there were enough of them - however, they continued to come up later - he called everyone to silence with an energetic exclamation and then began to sing in recitative, accompanying himself on a small harp or viol.

Usually the juggler did not have time to finish the entire poem before nightfall, and so the performance continued the next day. If the work was very large, sometimes it was enough for a whole week. And while it lasted, the juggler already received an invitation to a neighboring city, and even some noble lord sent pages from his castle ...

This is how many centuries ago it sounded throughout Western Europe and the most famous work of this genre is “The Song of Roland”. And not only in cities and castles for entertainment - it was sung before battles to inspire warriors. There is, for example, evidence that the "Song" was performed in the camp of the Norman knights at the Battle of Hastings in 1066, after which William the Conqueror became the king of England, and even the name of the singer has been preserved in history - Taifier.

Did Roland really exist?

The reason for the creation of the "Song of Roland" was a real historical event and its hero - a real person, about which, however, only one line has survived to our time in the testimony of a contemporary chronicler Einhard: "In this battle, Eggihard, along with many others, were killed, royal steward, Anselm, count palatine, and Hruodland, head of the Breton March.

This Hruodland, about whom we really know nothing, except that he was the governor of Charlemagne in Brittany, “brands”, as parts of the empire were called, became the hero of the poem, a model of knightly prowess, honor and stamina.

The plot of "The Song of Roland is so famous that everyone probably knows about the battle in the gorge, that the valiant knight did not want to blow the horn, calling for help the main forces of Charles' army, and did it, already dying. But here's how it was transformed the real event in a poetic work, how the views of later times were superimposed on it, is curious to trace.

In 778, Charlemagne was called to Spain by one of the Muslim rulers who was fighting against the Caliph of Cordoba. As a reward for his help, he promised to give the city of Zaragoza to the Franks, but the ruler of Zaragoza did not want to open its gates to the Christians. Charles and his army had to leave Spain. However, when crossing the Pyrenean passes, the Basques, taking revenge on Charles for the destruction of the city of Pampeluna, killed his rearguard.

“On his return,” the chronicler reports, “Charles had to suffer from Basque treachery. For, when he was moving in extended formation, as required by the conditions of the terrain and gorges, the Basques, setting up an ambush on the very top of the mountain (these places, because of the dense forests located there, are very favorable for ambushes), attacked from above, dropping a baggage train into the valley and those who, walking in the rear guard, guarded those in front. And, having started a battle with them, they killed every single one, and themselves, having plundered the convoy, with great speed fled in all directions under the cover of the already falling night. In this work the lightness of their weapons and the location of the place where this happened helped the Basques; on the contrary, the severity of weapons and the inconvenience of the terrain made the Franks unequal in everything to the Basques ... "

In such an essentially ordinary skirmish, “Hruodland, head of the Breton March” died.

However, everything became an event in those simple and naive times; Moreover, according to contemporaries, Charlemagne himself was very upset by what happened. Apparently, the very first oral poetic version of what happened appeared in hot pursuit. It is only impossible to say why Hruodland was chosen as the main character - after all, other notable people died in this skirmish. But be that as it may, already in the oldest of the handwritten copies of the “Song of Roland” that has come down to our time, dating from the 12th century, the clash with the Basques has unrecognizably changed ...

The rearguard of the French army, led by the king's nephew and favorite Roland, dies heroically in the name of "sweet France" and Christianity, fighting against countless hordes of Muslim Moors. The main culprit in the death of the rearguard was the traitor Ganelon, who, out of hatred for the valiant knight, entered into an agreement with the king of Zaragoza Marsilius. For the death of Roland, his friend the knight Olivier and all twelve French peers, Charles takes cruel revenge by defeating a huge army gathered from all over the Muslim world.

A simple story, apparently at first, has been transformed many times in countless oral retellings. And much has changed during this time and in the very life of Western Europe. The motives for the campaign of Charlemagne in Spain were forgotten, but the crusades began with incredible scale battles between Christians and "infidels". The poetic fantasy of the performers added new characters and additional details to the versions of the Song. And life itself made the work more and more epic and significant.

It found a response in the souls, because it was necessary, consonant. His ideals were simple and clear: chivalrous prowess and fortitude, loyalty to the lord, irreconcilable war against the "infidels"...

The Song of Roland was extremely popular in Europe for several centuries. Its variants are known in fifteen languages. In later times, prose texts appeared, and so complicated that they even described Roland's childhood, his first love - episodes that had nothing to do with the battle.

In Spain, the plot has completely changed - in one of the later versions, not Roland, but Karl himself is defeated. In Denmark, the knight Ogier the Dane, one of the minor characters in the French version, takes the first role ...

In a word, great literary works have a great destiny. And in its classical form, the "Song of Roland" entered the history of literature, as a heroic military epic with ideals of valor, friendship and stamina that should never become obsolete.

How Guillaume of Orange saved King Louis

But many other heroic works, created in France at the same time as the great "Song", left a noticeable mark in literature.

For example, "The Pilgrimage of Charlemagne", where, by the way, the same heroes act - Roland himself, and his friend the valiant knight Olivier, and Ogier the Dane. Here, Charlemagne, along with those close to him, set off to measure strength with the Greek emperor Hugogon. The holy relics received during the pilgrimage to Jerusalem help the French to accomplish all their exploits.

A large epic cycle has come down to us, united by one main character - Guillaume of Orange.

In the oldest of these poems, the influence of the Song of Roland is clearly felt, it is even called the Song of Guillaume. Here the action is based on the fact that the hero's nephew, the young knight Vivien, swore never to retreat before the Saracens. In a terrible battle with the hordes of the Cordoba king Derame who landed in France, he stubbornly refuses to turn to his uncle for help and only before his death sends his cousin to him.

Guillaume himself is a daring warrior with a rather unbridled disposition, hot, bold, direct. He swore to avenge his nephew, but twice his troops were defeated. Then, on the advice of a faithful and intelligent wife, a baptized Saracen, he demands a new army from King Louis, achieves his goal not without royal objections, and brutally cracks down on the Moors.

Generally speaking, Guillaume often has to show his temper, sometimes he even acts against the will of the king, but in the interests of the kingdom. In the poem "The Coronation of Louis", the hero had to literally force Charlemagne to crown his heir, and he immediately killed the traitor Anselin with his fist.

In two other poems - "The Nimes Cart" and "The Capture of Orange" - Guillaume, bypassed in the distribution of lands, demands for himself from King Louis only Nimes and Orange, the cities that were at that time in the power of the Saracens, and captures them for himself, expelling the "infidels".

Having already grown old and gone to the monastery, as the poem “The Monasticism of Guillaume” tells about, the warrior retained all his prowess and violent temper. He frightens the monks with his obstinacy, single-handedly beats a whole gang of robbers. And then, when Paris is besieged by the Saracens, Guillaume leaves the monastery and again goes to save the ill-fated King Louis and the kingdom.

There are a cycle of poems about William of Orange, no less than two dozen. But, of course, not all of those composed have ever survived to this day ...

Known in the French epic and poems about Gerard Rousillon and Ogier the Dane. These proud vassal knights are not afraid to compete and quarrel with the kings themselves. Hostility, however, ends in reconciliation. One of the collisions is directly reminiscent of our famous epic about Ilya Muromets, who was kept in captivity by Prince Vladimir, but was forced to release at that dramatic moment when Kyiv was besieged by enemies. In the same way, Charlemagne has to let Ogier out of prison only when the pagans moved to France, and there is no other savior to be found ...

Since literature reflects all the notable phenomena of its time, heroic poems could not but reflect feudal strife, tribal feuds, conflicts of vassal duty with family relations. All this can be found in the poem "Raoul de Cambrai", which researchers date back to the second half of the 12th century.

Raoul de Cambrai is endowed with approximately the same features as Guillaume of Orange - indomitability, willfulness. All the same literary king Louis deprived him of his father's lands, but granted someone else's - the hereditary fief of the counts of Vermandois. And for two generations, the feudal strife drags on in the poem.

But unlike Guillaume of Orange, Raoul de Cambrai is fierce, cruel, unfair. In the poem, he is opposed to the squire and vassal of Raul - the young Bernier. At first, he is forced to support de Cambrai against his own parents, even to endure the death of his mother, who was burned along with the entire convent by his master. And yet the poem ends with Bernier killing Raoul de Cambrai.

How Rodrigo de Bivar Became a Literary Hero

His own heroic epic was created simultaneously with the French in other countries. In the same Spain where Charlemagne once went for the promised city of Zaragoza, but was forced to turn back, his own masterpiece also appeared, which can be put on a par with the Song of Roland.

In France, itinerant singers were called jugglers, in Spain they were called hooglars. The “creative laboratories” were also similar - in Spain, real events were also taken as the basis for epic works, which over time acquired many additional details that had little to do with reality.

So there is nothing surprising, since the hero of "The Song of My Sid" turned out to be just as real a person as "Hruodland, the head of the Breton March." The only difference is that we do not know anything else about the real Roland, except for this brief report by the historian. Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar is better known.

He is one of the closest advisers and gifted military leaders under King Sancho of Castile, one of the heroes of the reconquista, the ongoing war between the Spaniards and the Arabs in the Iberian Peninsula. The Arabs also called him Sid (al-seid - master).

Everything happened in the life of the real Sid. When, after King Sancho, Alfonso VI began to rule and not the Castilian, but the Leonese nobility came to the fore, he happened to be in disfavor, even in exile.

In exile, Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar was at first an important person at the court of Count Berengaria of Barcelona, ​​then served the Muslim ruler of Zaragoza. After some time, having gathered an army at his own peril and risk, Rodrigo-Sid began to conquer the lands under Arab rule. He occupied Valencia and after that he reconciled with Alfonso VI, then he won several more brilliant victories in battles ...

The years of this man's life are precisely known - 1040-1099. A poem about his glorious deeds took shape, apparently, half a century after his death. Only one copy of the Poem about my Sid, compiled in 1307, has come down to modern literary historians. And it can be judged from it that this time the hooglar singers, both in general terms and in the names of the characters, have not gone so far from the true events of the life of the Spanish hero.

But, of course, there is no need to talk about literal accuracy. Many real events in the "Song" merge together, as, say, three quarrels between Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar and King Alfonso VI turn into one exile. It happened to the hero of the "Song" to win such victories in those places where nothing like this really happened.

And the exile itself becomes a truly epic event - such a motive itself is common in many literary works; and in "The Song of My Sid," the anonymous authors, of course, tried to extract everything they could from it.

It is described very thoroughly and with great sympathy how the unfortunate exile, with only a handful of relatives and the most devoted vassals, wanders around the country, not knowing at first where to lay his head. In order to borrow money for the food and maintenance of his vassals, he is even forced to resort to such a trick - to take money from wealthy Jews, pledging sealed chests stuffed with stones.

But gradually, owing everything to himself, his valor, intelligence, and even the loyalty of his most devoted warriors, Rodrigo-Sid conquers the lands that the Arabs previously owned, obtains untold riches, and only after that, out of generosity and nobility, reconciles with the king.

However, even during his struggle, winning victories and taking lands from Muslim rulers, Sid, at the slightest opportunity, emphasizes his vassal loyalty to the unjust king, sends him part of his booty. And it is not so difficult to understand why such a motive sounds in the "Song" - reconquest, the expulsion of Arabs from Spanish lands, would, of course, be impossible in a rebellious and self-willed country, lords and kings inevitably had to unite for the sake of a common cause ...

If we again compare "The Song of My Sid" with the French "Song of Roland", it immediately catches the eye that Sid is outlined much more multifaceted than Roland.

Roland is a valiant knight, faithful to his duty and blindly following his ideas about the ideals of honor. He is heroically furious in battle, recklessly bold.

And Sid, on the contrary, is balanced, he is an excellent diplomat. He is not only a brave warrior, but also a zealous master in his possessions, a commander who makes sure that his army is provided with everything necessary. In addition to this, he is a wonderful family man.

The Song of Roland is a heroic work only about the war. But in the "Song of my Sid", no less heroic, it is not only about the war, but also about everyday life. But, in fact, there is nothing surprising in such a difference: the Spanish "Song" began to take shape later than the French, when views on everything around, on relations between people, became more complicated.

I must say that although many other heroic poems were created at that time in Spain, Sid remained a favorite hero for a long time. Other tales about him were also composed, many episodes of his life were presented in separate romances - short lyrical-epic poems similar in form to northern ballads.

Who were the Nibelungs?

Among the epic works, close in time to the “Song of Roland” and “The Song of My Sid”, the famous German “Nibelungenlied”, a poem of 39 chapters, including about 10 thousand verses, stands out. Its plots are popular even today - mainly due to the famous operas of Wilhelm Richard Wagner, which make up the tetralogy "Ring of the Nibelung".

Of course, this work is based on even more ancient German-Scandinavian legends, but by about 1200, which is the date of the manuscript of the "Song", the poem, previously transmitted orally, acquired the final form that made it famous. In content, color, philosophy, it has nothing in common with the simpler and clearer "Song of Roland" and "Song of my Sid."

But still, it is probably worth at least briefly recalling the content of the Nibelungenlied.

Prince Siegfried from the Lower Rhine, having heard about the beauty of his sister Kriemhild, goes to woo Gunther, King of the Burgundians, in the city of Worms. And Gunther at this time himself wooed the hero Brynhild, who reigns in Iceland. And he asks Siegfried to help him in this.

Thanks to the invisibility cap, Siegfried actually helped Gunther defeat the hero in military competitions. The king marries her, but as a result of further intricacies of the plot, Siegfried has Brynhild's ring and belt.

Ten years later, the two queens are arguing about the merits of their husbands, and Kriemhilda, showing Brynhilde her ring and belt, which Siegfried again took possession of with the help of a cap of invisibility, calls the Icelandic mistress Siegfried's concubine.

Vassal and adviser to the Burgundian kings, Hagen von Tronier, with the consent of Gunther, avenges Brynhild. Siegfried is invulnerable - he bathed in the blood of the dragon Fafner he killed, and now he is not afraid of any weapon. But while bathing, a small leaf stuck to his back, and this is the only place where he can be hit.

Hagen cunningly found out from Kriemhild about this secret of Siegrfid and treacherously killed him on a hunt when he clung to a stream to quench his thirst. After that, Hagen and Gunther took possession of the treasure owned by Siegfried - the wonderful treasure of the Nibelungs ...

In the second part of the poem, which takes place many years later, Kriemhild, previously naive and tender, is completely transformed. During this time, she married the powerful king of the Huns, Etzel, but is consumed by one desire - to take revenge on Hagen and Gunther for the death of Siegfried and to regain the treasure of the Nibelungs. For this purpose, she invites the Burgundians to the country of the Huns.

During the battle, which began right in the banquet hall, all the Burgundian warriors die, and the famous Hun warrior Dietrich of Bern captured Gunther and Hagen themselves. But he gave the prisoners to Krimhilde on the condition that she spare them.

However, Kriemhild killed first Gunther, and then Hagen, whom she blew off her head with Siegfried's sword. Then the old warrior Hildebrand cut Kriemhild to pieces with sword blows...

Incredible conglomeration of events, bizarre plot twists - that's what distinguishes this work. It is full of violent passions, rage, thirst for revenge. But the heroes in their own way keep the concept of honor, despite their own terrible atrocities. So, for example, the murderer of Siegfried Hagen, having learned from the Danube mermaids about the impending death of the Burgundians in the land of the Huns, breaks the shuttle of the carrier so that his compatriots would not be able to dishonor themselves by flight.

This work is full of ambiguities and riddles. Even the name Nibelungen itself is used in the "Song" in a variety of meanings. They are also called the original owners of the treasure that Siegfried took possession of, fabulous creatures endowed with enormous growth and strength. In addition, the Burgundian kings Gibihungs are called Nibelungs - Gunther and his brothers after the transfer of the treasure into their hands ...

This motley medley of vicissitudes, unexpected turns, many deeds, dramatic clashes, passions, travels from one country to another, the most fantastic details - in a word, everything that distinguishes the Nibelungenlied from the clear and simple in essence "Songs of the Nibelungs" about Roland" and "Songs about my Sid", other heroic poems of the same period, brings it at the same time to a completely different genre, which developed a little later and gained extraordinary popularity in medieval Western Europe - the genre of a chivalric romance, the very one that ridiculed in the 17th century Cervantes in his Don Quixote.

But in fairness, it must be said that he ridiculed, of course, far from the best examples, but in reality literature knows many achievements in this genre. The famous touching and tender novel "Tristan and Isolde". Numerous novels about King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table...

However, the conversation about them ahead. The time has come to remember the troubadours, whose lyrics have become just as important and integral part of the literature of the chivalrous ages as the heroic epic, as the chivalric romance.

What did the troubadours sing about?

It is no coincidence that poetry flourished primarily in Provence. Many cities in southern France were founded in the era of Ancient Rome and largely preserved the ancient cultural traditions. In addition, they have long had close trade ties not only with the northern Christian countries, but also with the more sophisticated Muslim world, as well as with Italy, Sicily, and Byzantium. By the 11th century, they had also become major economic centers with developed crafts, including luxury goods.

By this time, a poetic movement began in the castles and cities of Provence, which reached its peak by the 12th century. The poetry of the troubadours went beyond the borders of Provence, became a common phenomenon for all countries of Southern Europe, and had a great influence on the countries of the German language, on England.

The lyrics of the troubadours were very different. It defined different directions, genres - for example, a two-voice pastorela, which is usually a conversation between a knight and a shepherdess he liked. Or Alba - a dawn song, in which, as a rule, a true friend reminds a friend who has forgotten about the time on a date with his beloved that dawn has come, or lovers themselves complain about the inevitability of separation.

Another genre is sirventes, satirical songs that vividly respond to topical events or problems. There are also known song-dispute, song-lament, song-strife...

Of course, the troubadours sang the Beautiful Lady, complained about the vicissitudes of love, about the cruelty of separation, but they also happened to poeticize the rapture of the battle, the excitement of the battle.

But how much can be said about poetry using prose? Wouldn't it be better to imagine yourself for a moment in some of the Provencal castles of the 12th century, to look into it just at the moment when the performer-juggler wandered there by chance or at the invitation of the owner ...

Here he tries the strings of his simple instrument, the listeners who have gathered in the courtyard or look out of the windows of the chambers freeze. And, for example, the lines of the Alba - the dawn song - sound:

Hawthorn foliage in the garden wilted,
Where donna and a friend catch every moment:
Just about the horn will be heard the first click!

- Oh, if the Lord gave the night forever,
And my dear did not leave me,
And the guard forgot his morning signal...
Alas, dawn, you are too hasty!

Let's go down to this meadow to the songs of birds.
Kiss me tight, dear friend, -
I'm not afraid of my jealous husband!
Alas, dawn, you are in too much of a hurry...

Let's continue our game here, my friend,
Until the horn sang from the tower:
After all, the time has come to part.
Alas, dawn, you are too hasty!

How sweet with the breeze
Flowing here from afar
Drink the breath of a dear friend!
Alas, dawn, you are too hasty!

The beauty is lovely and sweet
And blossomed with tender love,
But, poor thing, she is sad, -
Alas, dawn, you are too hasty!

Unfortunately, the name of the author of these lines remains unknown. But it is well known that the usual theme for Bertrand de Born, a knight and poet, was military courage and valor, his own strong hand and reliable friend. Among his resounding poems are "laments" for the fallen heroes-knights, including King Richard the Lionheart, poems about important political events. However, he did not shy away from love lyrics.

And one could also hear in the courtyard of our Provencal castle and a complaint that the crusades, battles for the Christian faith, bring separation to hearts in love. The name of the author of such poems has also come down to our days. “Marcabrune was a foundling,” a contemporary reports about him. - found at the gate of a certain rich gentleman, so that they never knew who he was and where he came from.

Perhaps if Mercabrun were a knight, he would never have written such lines.

How Louis VIII fought against the troubadours

Alas, history was preparing a truly tragic end for the refined poetry of the troubadours. At the beginning of the XIII century, a devastating war took place in the flowering lands of Provence. It was started by the knights of the northern French provinces with the blessing of the Pope, since officially the war was called a crusade against the Albigensian heretics.

The Albigensians, for the most part artisans and some peasants, opposed church dogmas, and at the basis of their beliefs, in contrast to Christian asceticism, lay a much more cheerful philosophy. It is not surprising that a considerable part of the nobility of Southern France began to profess the Albigensian ideals, as it is no doubt that this faith also nourished the work of the troubadours in many respects. It became more and more popular, pushing aside strict Christian postulates and spreading over an ever larger territory.

This religious movement was condemned by the Ecumenical Council in 1215, but the wars for faith unfolded in southern France even earlier - in 1209 and lasted twenty years. In the end, King Louis VIII of France himself took part in the crusade against the Albigensians, who, as a result, annexed part of the County of Toulouse to the royal domain. Cities and villages burned, in addition to other valuables, collections of manuscripts perished in the fire, many creations were lost forever.

And the troubadours themselves, at least a significant part of them, had to seek shelter in the Italian feudal principalities, at the courts of the Catalan, Portuguese, Aragonese, and Castilian monarchs. Their poems had to be heard in foreign languages. And, defeated in their homeland, the lyrics of the troubadours, which never reached their former heights, nevertheless had a huge impact on the literature of other Western European countries.

How and when the word "novel" appeared

But simultaneously with fine Provencal poetry, another most popular literary genre developed, which had a happier fate - a chivalric romance, at first always in verse, and then in prose. By the way, the very word "novel" appeared in the 12th century in relation to this particular genre and at first meant only a poetic text in a living Romance language, in contrast to a text in ecclesiastical Latin.

In its content, the chivalric romance is close to the lyrics of the troubadours in that it certainly contains the theme of sublime love, service to the Beautiful Lady. At the same time, the knights who act in the novels experience the most incredible, fantastic adventures, perform dizzying feats, embark on wanderings to distant fairy-tale lands. Moreover, all these feats are performed not for the glory of the motherland and the lord, as in epic poems, and not even in the name of the honor of the family, but for the sake of personal glory. Another essential feature of chivalric novels was that although the action took place in them in the most remote and fantastic countries or in time immemorial, the reader found in them pictures from contemporary life, modern society, topical problems consonant with him.

The chivalric romance arose primarily in the north of France, and from there the passion for it gradually passed to other countries. And the very first material for this literature was ancient times. This is explained by the fact that in antiquity it was possible to find plots that combined both love themes and the most incredible, fantastic adventures that completely echoed the knightly ideals of the Middle Ages.

One of the first works of this kind was the "Roman about Alexander", or rather, several adaptations of the most ancient biography of the great commander Alexander the Great at once. It first appeared in Egypt in the 3rd century AD, then it was translated from Greek into Latin, and the Latin edition served as the basis for several versions in French, but with the addition of a complete set of all knightly "attributes".

In the most complete and most artistically developed of them, Alexander the Great, the conqueror of half the world, is presented as a brilliant medieval knight. The poetic novel first of all tells in detail about his upbringing. As a baby, Alexander rejected the nurse, considering this way of eating too rude. I had to assign a princess to him, who began to feed the baby from a golden spoon. According to the authors (and literary historians call two poets of the 12th century - Lambert de Thor and Alexander de Berne) one eye of Alexander was blue, like a dragon, and the other black, like a vulture. Alexander easily curbed the horse Bucephalus, who was supposedly a cross between an elephant and a camel. In his youth, Alexander received two shirts from the fairies - one protected him from cold and heat, and the other from wounds. When the time came to knight the future hero, King Solomon presented him with a shield, and the sword was given to him by the queen of the Amazons, Penthesilea.

In his wanderings and campaigns, Alexander is driven not so much by the desire to conquer the world, but by the desire to know and see everything. Among other wonders of the world, he meets people with dog heads, finds the source of eternal youth, finds himself in a forest where, instead of flowers, young girls grow out of the ground in spring, who again go into the ground with cold, reaches earthly paradise. He travels for a long time, first in the land of eternal darkness, and then - eternal light. Not limited to the earthly firmament, Alexander wants to comprehend the secrets of the waters and heavens. In a huge glass barrel, he went down to the bottom of the sea and watched his curiosities. With the help of huge birds - vultures - he rose into the air ...

Alexander is endowed with all the features that are obligatory for a knight: courage, the ability to please ladies, and generosity. When one juggler delighted him with his art, Alexander presented him with a whole city as a reward, and those close to him began to seriously fear that he would not give away all his wealth and possessions in one year.

Did King Arthur really exist?

Simultaneously with the Romance of Alexander, the Romance of Aeneas appeared, going back to Virgil's Aeneid and composed by an unnamed French author. Almost immediately it was translated into German by Heinrich von Veldeke and thus became popular throughout almost all of Europe. And The Romance of Troy, composed by Benoît de Saint-Maur. True, in contrast to the classical ancient plot, the heroes here are not the Greeks, but the Trojans. The author composed many episodes himself - for example, the love story of the Trojan prince Troilus for the captive Greek woman Brizeida, ending with the betrayal of the insidious beauty. Benoît de Sainte-Maur sternly condemns women's inconstancy: “The sadness of a woman does not last long. She cries with one eye and laughs with the other. The mood of a woman changes quickly, and even the most reasonable of them is quite frivolous.

It must be assumed that these works enjoyed great success, both in castles and in cities, because a large number of their handwritten lists are known. But nevertheless, the chivalric romance owes its special flourishing not to antiquity, but to Celtic folk tales.

The Celts, the oldest tribes that lived in Europe even before our era, settled the British Isles (the Celts of Britain were called the Britons), left a huge number of legends full of bizarre fantasy. Many of them are associated with the name of King Arthur, whom historians identify with one of the real leaders of the Britons of the 5th-6th centuries, who heroically defended the areas of Britain that they had not yet captured from the Anglo-Saxons.

Around 1137, a chronicle written in Latin by Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain, appeared. This manuscript outlined the fabulous, mythical history of ancient Britain, starting from the origin of the Britons from the legendary Trojan Brutus, the grandson of Aeneas, to the events of the 7th century AD. But the central place in it was given to King Arthur. Relying on ancient Celtic legends, but exaggerating them even more, Galfrid turned him not only into a powerful king of all Britain, but also into the ruler of Scandinavia, Gaul, the winner of the Roman emperor, the ruler of half of Europe.

According to legend, Arthur asserted his dominion over Britain, having managed to pull out a wonderful sword from under the stone lying on the altar, which no one had been able to do before. Geoffrey tells not only about the military exploits of King Arthur, but also about his miraculous birth, about his departure, when he was mortally wounded, to the magical island of Avallon, the abode of immortality, about the deeds of his sister, the fairy Morgana and the wizard Merlin. The court of the king of the Britons is presented as the center of the highest valor and nobility. In addition to Arthur himself, his wife, the beautiful Queen Guinevere, rules here, and around the royal couple are gathered Arthur's nephew, the valiant Gauwen, Seneschal Kay, another nephew of Arthur, the evil Mordred, who eventually rebelled against the king and caused his death, valiant knights. ..

Geoffrey's chronicle, written in Latin, was soon translated into French and English. But the translators added some more details, drawing them again from the Celtic legends. One of the most significant details turned out to be this: King Arthur allegedly ordered a round table to be built in the banquet hall of his palace so that there would be no better or worse places behind him, and that all knights would feel equal behind him.

It was this chronicle that became the main source for many novels about the generous and courageous King Arthur, the wise ruler, and the exploits of his knights of the Round Table.

But the Celtic legends became the basis for another famous plot, processed by many authors of chivalric novels - about the all-consuming love of the knight Tristan and Iseult, the golden-haired beauty wife of King Mark, a wise man who even sympathizes with two lovers in the depths of his soul.

And the very first of the authors who created significant works in the genre of chivalric romance was the Frenchman Chretien de Troy, who lived in the second half of the 12th century. In his work, he used both Arthurian plots and the legend of Tristan and Isolde. It can be considered that he was the first to connect the adventures of the knights of the Arthurian Round Table with the legends of the Holy Grail, laying the foundation for a whole direction of literature of the knightly ages.

The exploits of the knight Erec

Chrétien de Troyes is a characteristic type of French trouvère of his time. The life of this educated man, who knew Latin well and translated Ovid in his youth, flowed at the courts of large seigneurs - Mary of Champagne, Philip of Flanders. After Ovid, he took up his own literary experiments. One of the first was a poetic novel about Tristan, but, unfortunately, it has not reached our time. The following were novels about King Arthur and his valiant knights - "Erec and Enida", "Klizhese", "Lancelot, or the Knight of the Cart", "Ivain, or the Knight with a Lion" and, finally, the unfinished "Perceval".

In terms of sharpness of thought, liveliness of imagination, problematics, and finally, in terms of literary skill, Chrétien de Troyes, no doubt, must be considered one of the most remarkable French poets of the Middle Ages. He is able in a fascinating story to ask important moral and philosophical questions, topical for his time. Say, like this - is love compatible with chivalrous deeds? It is proposed to search for the answer to it in Chrétien de Troy's first novel, Erec and the Aeneid. Maybe we'll try it...

Erec, the son of King Lak, a knight in the court of King Arthur, once met a girl of rare beauty named Enida, the daughter of a poor knight, and fell head over heels in love with her at first sight. He asks for her hand, and the father immediately agrees to this marriage. Upon learning of this, the rich cousin of poor Enida wants to give her luxurious dresses, but Erec announces that she will receive her outfit only from the hands of Queen Guinevere herself, and takes the girl away in a poor worn dress, through the holes of which a shirt is visible.

The whole court of King Arthur admired the beauty of Enida. Shortly after the wedding, King Lak, Erec's father, died, and he takes his young wife to his kingdom. For some time, the spouses live in complete happiness, but then the courtiers begin to grumble - from excessive love for his wife, with whom he does not part, Erek lost his strength and valor. Enid, to whom these rumors began to reach, does not dare to tell them to her husband, but one day he finds her crying and finally learns about the cause of her suffering.

Having fallen into anger, Erek announces that he is immediately leaving for exploits. But this one will differ from ordinary knightly campaigns in that Enida will go ahead of Erec, who, when she sees danger, should in no case warn her husband about this.

Erec had to endure many battles - with robbers, other wandering knights, and, in violation of the ban, Enida carefully informed him several times about the impending threat. This led to a quarrel between husband and wife, but once only Enida's devotion saved Erec's life. When Erec, wounded and unconscious, lay in the castle of an earl who gave him shelter, Enida learned that the earl wanted to kill her husband in order to make her his mistress. Then she brought Erec to his senses, put him on a horse and took him out of the castle. The novel ends with the fact that after many trials, covered with wounds, but triumphant, proving his valor and reconciled with his faithful wife, Erek returns home, and a happy, serene family life continues...

Why Queen Guinevere was angry with the knight Lancelot

A kind of "theory" of selfless chivalrous love, capable of any exploits, Chretien de Troyes created in the novel "Lancelot, or the Knight of the Cart." There is evidence that the poet received from Mary of Champagne, at whose court he was at that time, a special task to show how he should behave in various situations and what the “ideal” lover should feel. In this case, another knight of King Arthur, Lancelot, who later became the hero of many other works and other authors, appears in this way.

In this novel, Chrétien de Troyes again strings one adventure upon another. An unfamiliar knight kidnapped Queen Guinevere, whom the boastful and cowardly Seneschal Kay could not protect. Lancelot, in love with the queen, gave chase. He asks the dwarf he met which way the kidnapper left, but the dwarf promises to answer only if Lancelot agrees to ride in the cart - a requirement that is humiliating for the knight. But after a moment's hesitation, Lancelot, for the sake of selfless love for the queen, agrees to fulfill the requirement.

After a number of dangerous adventures, the brave knight finally reaches the castle of King Bademagyu, where his son Meleagan lives, who kidnapped the queen. To free Guinevere, Lancelot challenges him to a duel, which is watched by both the captive queen herself and King Bademagu. When it becomes obvious that Meleagan is about to be defeated, Bademagyu begs the queen to intercede for her son, which she does, ordering Lancelot to succumb to the enemy. Reluctantly, the knight in love goes for it, putting his life in danger; however, the honest Bademague declares him the winner and leads Lancelot to Guinevere. But then another unexpected test awaits him: the queen turns away from the knight in love.

With great difficulty, Lancelot finally learned that the reason for the adored queen's anger was that he still hesitated for a moment before getting into the cart. The knight receives forgiveness only when, in desperation, he tries to commit suicide; and for the first time in her selfless service, Guinevere appoints Lancelot a love date.

New adventures follow: the freed queen returns to her court, and the people of Meleagan treacherously threw Lancelot into a dungeon, where he languishes for long days and nights. Meanwhile, at the court of King Arthur, a jousting tournament is being arranged, in which, of course, Lancelot would like to take part. On parole, the jailer's wife lets him go; Lancelot promised to return to the dungeon after the tournament. Hiding his name, the knight fights valiantly in the tournament, but it is by valor that the queen guesses who he is.

Knowing that in the whole world only one knight is able to submit to any, even the most shameful order, if it comes from her, Guinevere tells him to fight as badly as possible. Lancelot goes for this, exposing himself as a coward and serving as a universal laughingstock.

Once again convinced of the obedience of the knight in love, Guinevere cancels his order, and Lancelot defeats all opponents, and then quietly hides and returns to the dungeon. But at the end of the novel, he is saved by his sister Meleagan, who Lancelot happened to render a great service to. Upon learning of the place of his imprisonment, she helps Lancelot escape...

Yvain and Lodina

Again, reflections on what is more important - love or chivalrous deeds and fun - form the moral basis of another verse novel by Chrétien de Troyes, Yvain, or the Knight with a Lion. And, of course, one adventure follows another.

Once a rumor reached the court of King Arthur that in a distant forest there is a source with a wonderful property: if you scoop up water from it and pour it out, a terrible storm will rise, and then a black knight appears who enters into single combat with a daredevil who decides to approach the source and always kills him. In search of this source, the hero of the novel, one of the knights of the Round Table, Yvain, sets off.

Of course, he somehow manages to defeat the black knight and mortally wound him. Then, chasing the enemy on his heels, Yvain drives into the gates of the castle, which immediately slam behind him. Caught in a trap, the knight is saved only thanks to Lunette, the servant of the owner of the castle, who, taking pity on him, gives Yvain a ring that makes him invisible. After the burial of the dead black knight, Luneta gives Ywain the opportunity to leave the castle, but he refuses, because he saw the widow of the murdered Lodina and fell in love with her without memory. Yvain begs the maid to intercede for him with her mistress.

It would seem that the situation is hopeless - Lodina will never agree to marry the murderer of the black knight, her former husband. This is truly a Shakespearean collision; however, Chrétien de Troyes also managed to psychologically substantiate Lodina's decision to give her hand to Yvain.

At first, she indignantly drives the servant away, as soon as she spoke to her about the possibility of a new marriage, without yet telling her anything really about Yvaine. Then curiosity awakens in Lodin, she herself starts a new conversation with Lunette and becomes furious when she learns that the applicant for her hand killed the black knight. But the servant’s arguments are as follows: there must be a protector at the castle and the source, and who will be better in this role than the winner of the former protector?

To these arguments is added the natural coquetry of Lodina, the conviction of the irresistibility of her charms. And in the end, the owner of the castle asks the maid to bring Yvain to her as soon as possible and, while waiting, imagines the upcoming scene in her imagination - how the knight will justify the fact that he killed her husband, by the desire to be able to marry her himself, how he will beg her about love, and how she would have to forgive him...

However, the romance does not end with the wedding. Arthur, together with his knights, worried about the long absence of Yvain, goes in search of him, finds him and after a joyful meeting asks Lodina to let him go to her court for a while so that Yvain can plunge into the world of his favorite knightly amusements for a while. Lodina agrees, but sets a strictly defined deadline for the return. However, as expected, among the feasts, tournaments, hunting entertainment, Yvain forgets about the deadline and when he does return, he finds the gates of Lodina's castle tightly locked.

A new string of adventures follows: in desperation, Yvain rides at random, not choosing a road, and performs one feat after another. For a while he even lost his mind, suffering because of rejected love, but then he was healed. Once he happened to meet a lion limping because of a huge splinter in its paw. The knight safely removed the splinter, and since then the lion has become attached to him and followed him everywhere. In the end, after long wanderings, Yvain again finds herself near Lodina's castle and, with the help of a new mediation of a servant, is forgiven.

What is the Holy Grail

In the last, unfinished poetic novel of Chrétien de Troyes "Perceval", the mysterious, incomprehensible, mystical Grail finally appears, for the sake of which the knights later performed their exploits in many works of other authors.

The Grail, as a kind of magical talisman, apparently has something to do with Celtic legends, but at the same time it is also a product of later Christian times. It was the synthesis of ancient traditions with Christian religiosity that gave rise to a special direction of the chivalric romance.

The Holy Grail is a kind of vessel, a materialized shrine that has magical properties. In Christian notions, it was usually believed that this was a cup with the blood of Jesus Christ, which was collected by Joseph of Arifamey, who removed the body of the crucified Lord from the cross. It was often assumed that this bowl served Christ and the apostles during the Last Supper - it was a chalice, a bowl for communion.

However, according to other, rarer religious versions, the Grail is a silver dish on which lay the severed head of John the Baptist.

Some ambiguity about what the Grail is - and sometimes other objects were also called it - is generally an inseparable part of the legend about it, since it was assumed that the Grail is a secret invisible to the unworthy, but worthy of being one way or another. Be that as it may, the Grail has miraculous properties to heal, to saturate its chosen ones with unearthly food, to bestow youth. In search of the Grail and set off in chivalric novels one hero after another.

Chrétien de Troy's poetic novel about him is called "Perceval", but it also has a second name that directly indicates its essence - "The Tale of the Grail". The action begins with the fact that the widow of a knight, whose husband and several sons died in battles and tournaments, wanting to save her last young son, called Perceval, from all the dangers of knightly life, settled with him in a dense forest. But the grown-up Perceval once accidentally met knights passing through the forest, and then his true destiny was suddenly revealed to him too.

He announced to his mother that he wanted to become a warrior like them, and in the end she had to agree to this. Perceval, as usual, went to the court of King Arthur to be knighted there. At first, as a result of his former solitary life, he makes one ridiculous mistake after another, but gradually everyone imbues him with respect because of his valor.

The exploits of Perceval begin. One day he finds himself in a certain castle, where he witnesses a strange scene: in the middle of the hall lies an old sick knight, the owner of the castle, and a procession passes by him, which has some kind of secret meaning. First, they carry a spear, from the tip of which blood drips, then the Grail itself - a dazzlingly sparkling vessel, then a silver plate.

Out of modesty, young Perceval does not dare to ask what all this means. In the morning, when he woke up in the room allotted to him, he saw that there was no one in the castle. Then Perceval also leaves, and only a long time later finds out that if he asked about the meaning of the procession, then the sick knight would immediately be healed, and prosperity would come to the whole country. It also turned out that inappropriate shyness attacked him as punishment - with his departure from the house, hidden in the wilderness of the forest, he broke his mother's heart.

Having learned all this, Perceval promised himself to find the mysterious castle again at all costs, and again sets off on his journey. In turn, Gauwen, the nephew of King Arthur, goes on a quest...

Alas, what was to happen to them next remained unknown: Chrétien de Troyes was not destined to bring his novel to an end. It remains unclear what the author himself meant by the Grail - he in no way connects the mysterious cup with the blood of Christ.

However, Chrétien de Troy's novel was completed by other French poets, moreover, it happened independently of each other, so that handwritten lists of "Perceval" with identical beginnings and different endings remained in the history of literature.

New Adventures of the Knights of the Round Table

There are also numerous imitations, independent adaptations of the plot begun by Chrétien de Troyes, and not only in French. In Germany, the theme of the Grail was most successfully developed by a prominent poet, a poor knight by birth, Wolfram von Eschenbach, who lived in the XII-XIII centuries. The main part of his poetic novel "Parzival" coincides with "Perceval" de Troyes, but at the same time it is a completely independent, original work.

In "Parzival" by Wolfram von Eschenbach, the Grail is not a vessel, but a precious stone brought by angels from heaven and endowed with miraculous power to saturate everyone according to his desire, to give youth and bliss. The castle of the Grail is guarded by knights, whom von Eschenbach calls the Templars. The Knights of the Grail are forbidden from loving service, they can only serve the sublime. When a country is left without a king, one of the Grail knights is sent to protect it, but he cannot reveal his name and origin to anyone.

So in the novel, Parzival's son Lohengrin is sent by the Grail to protect Elsa, the Duchess of Brabant, who is oppressed by recalcitrant vassals. Lohengrin defeats Elsa's enemies, but, wanting to know his name and origin, she violates the Grail prohibition, and therefore the knight must return to his country...

But still, most often in chivalric novels about the Grail, this shrine was precisely the cup associated with Christ. And in search of her, under the pen of numerous authors-poets, all the new knights of the Round Table rushed - Lancelot, and Galahad, and Bors. But only a few of them managed to achieve the goal and, having seen the Grail, find holiness in their soul and thoughts.

In the 13th century, all these poetic novels, which in the history of literature have been called the "Breton cycle", are gradually shifted to more digestible prose. King Arthur and his knights are becoming even more popular with readers. Their exploits are overgrown with new details, they describe in more detail the daily life of knights and the military life of valiant warriors. Descriptions of knightly virtues become instructive.

In the end, all this huge number of plots and versions that wandered around medieval Europe was collected and processed in a cycle of five novels, which later received the name "Vulgate" - popular, accessible reading.

These novels - "The Story of the Holy Grail", "The Story of Merlin", "The Book of Lancelot of Lake", "The Search for the Holy Grail" and "The Death of King Arthur" - were united not so much by the image of King Arthur himself, but by the image of the most valiant and noble of knights. - Sir Lancelot. True, they also contain all the numerous characters familiar from all the previous "Arthurian" works, and the main motive is precisely the search for the sublime, the symbol of which is the Holy Grail.

All these motifs inspired the creation of another remarkable work of another medieval author - the Englishman Thomas Malory. In the second half of the 15th century, he wrote the novel Le Morte d'Arthur. There were good reasons for its appearance, for a new revival of a long-standing theme.

By this time, chivalric culture was already fading into the past, taking with it the lofty chivalric ideals. However, could admiration for courage, courage, valor, nobility disappear without a trace in the hearts of people? Will love, the most beautiful of feelings bestowed on a person, ever go away forever?

When Malory conceived his book, there was a fierce internecine war for the throne in England, which went down in history under the name of the War of the Scarlet and White Roses, symbols of the rival families of Lancaster and York. In this struggle, which lasted for many years, perhaps they no longer remembered the chivalrous attitude towards the enemy, the code of honor, generous and noble behavior on the battlefield. A man named Thomas Malory, himself a participant in a cruel feudal war, wanted to remind his contemporaries of all this.

And again the world of generous, noble chivalry came to life before the readers with its exploits in the name of lofty ideals and the good reputation of brave warriors. In the images of King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table, all the ideal features of a knight are collected - great physical strength, but at the same time courtesy, good breeding, generous attitude towards the enemy - in a word, everything that Malory himself called "knowledge". And, of course, Malory's knights are distinguished by a particularly noble attitude towards the Beautiful Ladies.

It is impossible not to see that the author himself simply admires his heroes, their exploits arouse admiration in him; and so the other most frequent epithet in the book is the word marvelous. “A marvelous number of people died in the fight,” Malory informs the reader. “Wonderfully he cut the knight ... marvelously he struck a blow with a spear ...”

How a literary critic "reconstructed" an ancient novel

However, another great plot of chivalric literature, the love story of Tristan and Isolde, previously developed by numerous authors completely independently of the "Arthurian cycle", entered the book of Thomas Malory as an integral part.

This story, also based on ancient Celtic tales, was so loved in Europe for three centuries that the names of Tristan and Isolde became synonymous with truly loving hearts. Often they were given as personal names, not embarrassed by the fact that the Church does not know saints with such names. Separate scenes from the story of two lovers were reproduced many times on the walls in the main halls of castles and palaces in the form of frescoes, on carpets, caskets, goblets.

For the first time, a literary processing of the plot was made in France in the 12th century in the form of a poetic novel. This first novel caused a huge number of imitations with the addition of more and more details, first in the same French language, and then in German, English, Italian, Spanish, Norwegian, Czech, Polish, modern Greek ... But, unfortunately, before our time, despite such a success of the novel among contemporaries, only fragments of numerous treatments have survived, while others have not been preserved at all. The first, oldest novel about Tristan and Isolde also perished entirely.

And yet ... there exists today its full prose version. At the beginning of the century, the novel was “reconstructed” from extant passages, from hints of it in other works, by the French philologist Joseph Bedier, who did work similar to the work of a paleontologist who is able to restore the entire appearance of a disappeared fossil animal from one bone, or an archaeologist who restores several shards of the character of an entire bygone culture.

Iseult Golden-haired and knight Tristan

I would like to believe that in our century, the poetic and tragic love story of Tristan and Isolde is able to touch many hearts. Here's what happens in the ancient novel...

Tristan, the son of a king, lost his parents as a child and was kidnapped by visiting Norwegian merchants. Fleeing from them, he ended up in Cornwall, at the court of his uncle King Mark, who raised Tristan and, being old and childless, intended to make him his successor.

Growing up, Tristan became a brilliant knight. He killed the Irish hero Morolt ​​in single combat and thereby freed Cornwall from paying the annual "living tribute" to the Irish - three hundred young men and three hundred girls. But in the duel, Morolt ​​inflicted a wound on Tristan with a poisoned weapon, and it does not heal in any way.

In search of healing, Tristan sits in a boat and sails at the behest of the waves. The wind carries him to Ireland, where the queen, versed in drugs and not knowing that Tristan killed her brother, heals his wound. When the knight returned to Cornwall, the local barons, jealous of Tristan, began to demand from Mark that he marry and give the country an heir to the throne. To dissuade this, Mark announced that he was marrying a girl who owns a golden hair dropped by a swallow.

Tristan went in search of this unknown beauty. He again sails at random and again ends up in Ireland, where he recognizes in the royal daughter, Isolde the Golden-haired, the girl who owns the hair carried away by the swallow. Having defeated the fire-breathing dragon that devastated Ireland, Tristan receives Isolde's hand from the king, but announces that he himself will not marry her, but will take her to his uncle as a bride.

But when Tristan and Iseult sailed on a ship to Cornwall, they mistakenly drank the "love potion" that Iseult's mother gave her so that this magical potion would forever bind the bride to King Mark. Now Tristan and Isolde cannot fight the passion that has gripped them, until the end of their days they will belong only to each other.

In Cornwall, Isolde becomes Mark's wife, but passion keeps her looking for secret dates with Tristan. The faithful servant of Isolde Brangien helps the lovers. The courtiers are trying to track them down, and the generous King Mark tries not to notice anything.

But still, in the end, the unfaithful wife is exposed, the court sentences Tristan and Iseult to death; however, they manage to escape, and for a long time they wander, suffering hardships, but happy with their love. Finally, King Mark forgives them on the condition that Tristan retires into exile.

Having left for Brittany, Tristan, seduced by the similarity of names, married another Isolde, nicknamed Beloruka. But immediately after the wedding, he repented of this and remained faithful to the first Isolde. Several times, disguised beyond recognition, he came to Cornwall to secretly see his beloved.

Finally, in one of the skirmishes in Brittany, Tristan was mortally wounded. Believing that only Isolde Golden-haired could heal him, Tristan sent his faithful friend after her, ordering her to raise a white sail on the ship if his beloved sailed on it. However, the jealous Isolde Belorukaya, having learned about this agreement, tells Tristan to tell that the sail on the ship approaching the shore is black.

Hearing this news, Tristan dies. Next to him, Isolde Golden-haired also dies of despair. They are buried, and on the same night two trees grow on the graves, the branches of which are intertwined ...

Tragic, cruel, but at the same time touchingly beautiful, poetic story. No wonder he so excited the imagination of poets of all times, and inspired the Italian composer Donizetti to create the famous opera L'elisir d'amore, just as the Nibelungenlied inspired the composer Wagner.

Are chivalric novels being written nowadays?

So the time has come to put an end to the chapter on literature created in the chivalrous ages. It is clear that among the many works there were not only achievements, that a huge number of mediocre crafts were also created, which quickly sunk into oblivion, and which only literary critics now remember.

But the peaks of medieval poetry and prose - they are still noticeable. Even if not all of our contemporaries at least approximately know the content of the “Song of Roland” or “Perceval”, however, for almost everyone, the name of Roland is a symbol of valor and courage, the name of King Arthur is a symbol of wisdom and dignity. And the names of Tristan and Isolde, always standing side by side, have become symbols of all-consuming, immortal love.

However, romantic knightly times, full of contradictions and drama, gave the world not only their own literature - many centuries later they themselves came to life in the works of completely different writers, authors of historical novels.

Among them are such ringing names as Sir Walter Scott, the author of Ivanhoe, Quentin Durward, Charles the Bold, The Count of Paris, Richard the Lionheart, and many other works.

These times were addressed by Robert Louis Stevenson, who left the novel "Black Arrow" about the war of the Scarlet and White Roses. And Arthur Conan Doyle, author of the incomparable Sherlock Holmes, but also the author of The White Company, a novel about English chivalry. You can name Henry Ryder Haggard, the author of Fair Margaret. And many other writers, less visible.

And in our century, writers are interested in the distant knightly era. One of the masterpieces of Lion Feuchtwanger "Spanish Ballad" tells about the times of the Castilian king Alphonse VIII, about the reconquista, the struggle of the Spanish chivalry with the Moors, and about the all-consuming knightly love. By the way, among the characters in this novel there are such real people as the troubadour knight Bertrand de Born and Eleanor of Aquitaine, the mother of King Richard I the Lionheart.

Maurice Druon, well-known in our country, and another Frenchman, Georges Bordonov, who had just been discovered for the Russian reader, wrote about chivalry. He created the novels "William the Conqueror", "The Spears of Jerusalem", "Requiem for Gilles de Rais", wrote a whole study on the lawsuit that the French king Philip IV the Handsome led against the Knights Templar.

And of course, many, many more writers - and readers! - will attract the times of chivalry - militant, cruel, tragic, heroic. Not only the intensity of passions, exciting stories that life itself built. Not least of all, and even if a little naive, but bright faith in the best properties of the human soul - nobility, fidelity to duty and word, the ability to love and draw strength from love, even unrequited.

It was in the era of chivalry that ideas were created about how a real man should be - an ideal Knight, and a real woman - a Beautiful Lady. It turns out that despite all the vicissitudes that have befallen mankind since then, these ideas are still alive.

The stories of knights loyal to the king, a beautiful lady and military duty have been inspiring men to exploits for many centuries, and people of art to creativity.

Ulrich von Liechtenstein (1200-1278)

Ulrich von Liechtenstein did not storm Jerusalem, did not fight the Moors, did not participate in the Reconquista. He became famous as a knight-poet. In 1227 and 1240 he traveled, which he described in the courtly novel The Service of the Ladies.

According to him, he went from Venice to Vienna, challenging every knight he met to fight in the name of Venus. He also created The Ladies' Book, a theoretical essay on love poetry.

Lichtenstein's "Serving the Ladies" is a textbook example of a courtly novel. It tells about how the knight sought the location of a beautiful lady. To do this, he had to amputate his little finger and half of his upper lip, defeat three hundred opponents in tournaments, but the lady remained adamant. Already at the end of the novel, Lichtenstein concludes "that only a fool can serve indefinitely where there is nothing to count on and a reward."

Richard the Lionheart (1157-1199)

Richard the Lionheart is the only Knight King on our list. In addition to the well-known and heroic nickname, Richard also had a second one - "Yes and no." It was invented by another knight, Bertrand de Born, who dubbed the young prince so for his indecision.

Already being king, Richard did not manage England at all. In the memory of his descendants, he remained a fearless warrior who cared about personal glory more than about the well-being of his possessions. Almost the entire time of his reign, Richard spent abroad.

He took part in the Third Crusade, conquered Sicily and Cyprus, besieged and took Acre, but the English king did not dare to storm Jerusalem. On the way back, Richard was captured by Duke Leopold of Austria. Only a rich ransom allowed him to return home.

After returning to England, Richard fought for another five years with the French king Philip II Augustus. Richard's only major victory in this war was the capture of Gisors near Paris in 1197.

Raymond VI (1156-1222)

Count Raymond VI of Toulouse was an atypical knight. He became famous for his opposition to the Vatican. One of the largest feudal lords of Languedoc in Southern France, he patronized the Cathars, whose religion was practiced during his reign by the majority of the population of Languedoc.

Pope Innocent II excommunicated Raimund twice for refusing to obey, and in 1208 he called for a campaign against his lands, which went down in history as the Albigensian Crusade. Raymond offered no resistance and in 1209 publicly repented.

However, too cruel, in his opinion, the demands on Toulouse led to another discord with the Catholic Church. For two years, from 1211 to 1213, he managed to hold Toulouse, but after the defeat of the crusaders in the Battle of Muret, Raymond IV fled to England, to the court of John Landless.

In 1214, he again officially submitted to the pope. In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council, which he attended, stripped him of his rights to all lands, leaving only the marquisate of Provence to his son, the future Raymond VII.

William Marshal (1146-1219)

William Marshal was one of the few knights whose biography was published almost immediately after his death. In 1219, a poem entitled "The History of William Marshal" was published.

The marshal became famous not because of his feats of arms in wars (although he also participated in them), but thanks to his victories in knightly tournaments. He gave them sixteen years of his life.

The Archbishop of Canterbury called the Marshal the greatest knight of all time.

Already at the age of 70, Marshal led the royal army on a campaign against France. His signature is on the Magna Carta as a guarantor of its observance.

Edward the Black Prince (1330-1376)

Eldest son of King Edward III, Prince of Wales. He received his nickname either because of his difficult character, or because of the origin of his mother, or because of the color of the armor.

The "Black Prince" gained his fame in battles. He won two classic battles of the Middle Ages - at Cressy and at Poitiers.

For this, his father especially noted him, making him the first knight of the new Order of the Garter. His marriage to a cousin, Joanna of Kent, also added to Edward's knighthood. This couple was one of the brightest in Europe.

On June 8, 1376, a year before his father's death, Prince Edward died and was buried in Canterbury Cathedral. The English crown was inherited by his son Richard II.

The Black Prince has left a mark on culture. He is one of the heroes of Arthur Conan Doyle's dilogy about the Hundred Years' War, a character in Dumas' novel The Bastard de Moleon.

Bertrand de Born (1140-1215)

The knight and troubadour Bertrand de Born was the ruler of Perigord, the owner of the castle of Hautefort. Dante Alighieri portrayed Bertrand de Born in his "Divine Comedy": the troubadour is in Hell, and holds his severed head in his hand as punishment for the fact that in life he fanned quarrels between people and loved wars.

And, according to Dante, Bertrand de Born sang only to sow discord.

De Born, meanwhile, became famous for his courtly poetry. In his poems, he glorified, for example, the Duchess Matilda, the eldest daughter of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine. De Born was acquainted with many troubadours of his time, such as Guillem de Bergedan, Arnaut Daniel, Folke de Marseilla, Gaucelm Faydit and even the French trouveur Conon of Bethune. Toward the end of his life, Bertrand de Born retired to the Cistercian abbey of Dalon, where he died in 1215.

Gottfried of Bouillon (1060-1100)

To become one of the leaders of the First Crusade, Gottfried of Bouillon sold everything he had and gave up his lands. The pinnacle of his military career was the assault on Jerusalem.

Gottfried of Bouillon was elected the first king of the crusader kingdom in the Holy Land, but refused such a title, preferring to him the title of baron and Defender of the Holy Sepulcher.

He left an order to crown his brother Baldwin king of Jerusalem if Gottfried himself died - so a whole dynasty was founded.

As a ruler, Gottfried took care of expanding the boundaries of the state, imposed taxes on the emissaries of Caesarea, Ptolemais, Ascalon, and subjugated the Arabians on the left side of the Jordan to his power. On his initiative, a statute was introduced, which was called the Jerusalem Assisi.

He died, according to Ibn al-Qalanisi, during the siege of Acre. According to another version, he died of cholera.

Jacques de Molay (1244-1314)

De Molay was the last Master of the Knights Templar. In 1291, after the fall of Acre, the Templars moved their headquarters to Cyprus.

Jacques de Molay set himself two ambitious goals: he wanted to reform the order and convince the pope and European monarchs to equip a new crusade to the Holy Land.

The Knights Templar were the richest organization in the history of medieval Europe, and their economic ambitions were beginning to get in the way of European monarchs.

On October 13, 1307, by order of the King of France, Philip IV the Handsome, all the French Templars were arrested. The order was officially banned.

The last master of the Templars has remained in history, including thanks to the legend of the so-called "curse of de Molay". According to Geoffroy of Paris, on March 18, 1314, Jacques de Molay, ascending the fire, summoned the French king Philip IV, his adviser Guillaume de Nogaret and Pope Clement V to God's judgment. Already shrouded in clouds of smoke, he promised the king, adviser and pope that they outlive it by no more than a year. He also cursed the royal family to the thirteenth generation.

In addition, there is a legend that Jacques de Molay, before his death, founded the first Masonic lodges, in which the forbidden order of the Templars was supposed to remain underground.

Jean le Maingre Boucicault (1366-1421)

Boucicault was one of the most famous French knights. At 18, he went to Prussia to help the Teutonic Order, then he fought against the Moors in Spain and became one of the heroes of the Hundred Years War. During the truce in 1390, Boucicault entered the jousting tournament and took first place in it.

Busiko was a knight-errant and wrote poems about his prowess.

His was so great that King Philip VI made him Marshal of France.

In the famous Battle of Agincourt, Boucicault was captured and died in England six years later.

Cid Campeador (1041(1057)-1099)

The real name of this illustrious knight was Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar. He was a Castilian nobleman, military and political leader, national hero of Spain, hero of Spanish folk tales, poems, romances and dramas, as well as the famous tragedy of Corneille.

The Arabs called the knight the Sid. Translated from folk Arabic, "sit" means "my lord." In addition to the nickname "Sid", Rodrigo also earned another nickname - Campeador, which translates as "winner".

The glory of Rodrigo was forged under King Alfonso. Under him, El Cid became the commander-in-chief of the Castilian army. In 1094, Cid captured Valencia and became its ruler. All attempts by the Almorravids to recapture Valencia ended in their defeats at the battles of Kuart (in 1094) and Bairen (in 1097). After his death in 1099, Sid turned into a folk hero, sung in poems and songs.

It is believed that before the last battle with the Moors, El Cid was mortally wounded by a poisoned arrow. His wife dressed Compeador's body in armor and put him on a horse so that his army would maintain morale.

In 1919, the remains of Cid and his wife, Doña Jimena, were buried in Burgos Cathedral. Since 2007, Tisona, a sword that allegedly belonged to Sid, has been located here.

William Wallace (c. 1272-1305)

William Wallace is a national hero of Scotland, one of the most important figures in her wars of independence from 1296-1328. His image was embodied by Mel Gibson in the movie "Braveheart".

In 1297, Wallace killed the English sheriff of Lanark and soon established himself as one of the leaders of the Scottish rebellion against the English. On September 11 of the same year, Wallace's small army defeated the 10,000th English army on Stirling Bridge. Most of the country was liberated. Wallace was knighted and declared Guardian of the Realm, ruling in Balliol's name.

A year later, the English king Edward I again invaded Scotland. On July 22, 1298, the Battle of Falkirk took place. Wallace's forces were defeated and he was forced into hiding. However, a letter from the French king to his ambassadors in Rome, dated November 7, 1300, survives, in which he demands that they support Wallace.

In Scotland, guerrilla warfare continued at this time, and Wallace returned to his homeland in 1304 and took part in several clashes. However, on August 5, 1305, he was captured in the vicinity of Glasgow by English soldiers.

Wallace rejected the accusations of treason at the trial, saying: "I cannot be a traitor to Edward, because I have never been his subject."

On August 23, 1305, William Wallace was executed in London. His body was beheaded and cut into pieces, his head hung on the Great London Bridge, and body parts are on display in the largest cities in Scotland - Newcastle, Berwick, Stirling and Perth.

Henry Percy (1364-1403)

For his character, Henry Percy was nicknamed "hotspur" (hot spur). Percy is one of the heroes of Shakespeare's historical chronicles. Already at the age of fourteen, under the command of his father, he participated in the siege and capture of Berik, ten years later he himself commanded two raids on Boulogne. In the same year, 1388, he was knighted in the Garter by King Edward III of England, and took an active part in the war with France.

For his support of the future King Henry IV, Percy became constable of the castles of Flint, Conwy, Chester, Caernarvon and Denbigh, and was also appointed Justicar of North Wales. At the Battle of Homildon Hill, Hotspur captured Earl Archibald Douglas, who was in command of the Scots.

The outstanding commander of the Hundred Years War, Bertrand Deguquelin, in his childhood, did not look much like the future famous knight.

According to the troubadour Cuvelier of Tournai, who compiled the biography of Dugueclin, Bertrand was "the ugliest child in Rennes and Dinan" - with short legs, too broad shoulders and long arms, an ugly round head and swarthy "boar" skin.

Deguquelin entered the first tournament in 1337, at the age of 17, and later chose a military career - as researcher Jean Favier writes, he made war his craft "as much out of necessity as out of spiritual inclination."

Most of all, Bertrand Du Guesclin became famous for his ability to take well-fortified castles by storm. His small detachment, supported by archery and crossbowmen, stormed the walls with ladders. Most castles, which had insignificant garrisons, could not resist such tactics.

After the death of Dugueclin during the siege of the city of Châteauneuf-de-Randon, he was given the highest posthumous honor: he was buried in the tomb of the French kings in the church of Saint-Denis at the feet of Charles V.

John Hawkwood (c. 1320-1323 -1394)

The English condottiere John Hawkwood was the most famous leader of the "White Company" - a detachment of Italian mercenaries of the XIV century, which served as a prototype for the heroes of Conan Doyle's novel "The White Company".

Together with Hawkwood, English archers and footmen at arms appeared in Italy. Hawkwood for his military merits received the nickname l'acuto, "cool", which later became his name - Giovanni Acuto.

The fame of Hawkwood was so great that the English King Richard II asked the Florentines for permission to bury him in his homeland in Hedingham. The Florentines returned the ashes of the great condottiere to their homeland, but ordered a tombstone and a fresco for his empty grave in the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore.

Every real man, at least once, must accomplish a feat: save a beautiful lady from captivity, close a friend’s back from a bullet, or snatch a harmless creature from the hands of tormentors. That's exactly what Max thought. He dreamed, passionately and wholeheartedly dreamed of one day accomplishing a real feat, as in his favorite books, but so far he was only running into trouble. Either some strange ladies, they didn’t want to escape at all, then the friend was not at all in danger and he was not at all going to fall from the tree. Every attempt to be a knight even for a moment ended in the treatment of abrasions and bruises, long and tedious lectures from mom and a menacing look from dad.

Maxim silently listened to his mother, nodded to his father and assured his parents that he would never behave so irresponsibly again. He held on as long as he could, but another adventure called for him, and, mentally apologizing to everyone, he rushed headlong to perform great feats, which, however, ended in dislocations, bruises and sprains. Everyone in the village suffered more than once from Maksimka's "chivalrous deeds". And after all, he did everything not out of evil, but out of the kindness of his soul.

On that day, Maksimka walked aimlessly along the river bank and scattered the autumn leaves with a long stick. Cheerfully whistling something, he rejoiced at the rare warm day. Today, the young knight was not drawn to feats and just wanted to take a walk, but the feat decided to find it himself.

Maxim heard a quiet squeak. He listened, but in the noise of the running river he decided that it was just a fantasy. Maxim wanted to continue on his way again, but again he heard a thin squeak. On this quiet sound and went. He led him to the shallows. Maxim looked around, but saw nothing. He stood a little and looked around again for order, and was about to leave, when suddenly his eyes caught on something black in the fast waters of a restless river. Maksimka took a closer look and was finally able to understand: there was a small black kitten in the river. He squeaked, beat with his paws on the water, tried to swim to the shore, but the current, indifferent to his life, did not allow him to get out onto land and carried him straight to the stones.

Maxim did what he always did: like a true knight, he rushed into the cold water without undressing, he did not even take off his shoes. The clothes immediately got wet, which significantly complicated the role of the rescuer. The fast current picked up the boy like a toy and carried him in the direction of the stones. Maxim tried to fight, was exhausted, he wanted to save the baby by all means, and when he managed to grab the kitten by one paw, he pulled it towards himself and pressed it to his chest. The frightened kid at first did not understand that they wanted to save him, he scratched and pulled out of the hands of the young savior, and then, apparently, he finally lost his strength and quieted down.

The young knight tried to swim to the shore, but the current decided everything for him. The collision with the first stone was avoided, but the second one hit hard in the side, and only the third one managed to catch on and take a break. Gaining strength, Maxim pushed off the stone and again tried to get to land. Maybe stubbornness helped him, or maybe the river goddess decided to let her victim go this time, but he finally felt the saving bottom under his feet. Maxim literally crawled to the shore. Having fallen on the sand, he pressed the shaking kitten to himself and lost consciousness.

Maksimka was found by his parents, alarmed by his long absence. He was lying on the shore, and a small fluffy kitten, like a ball, was sitting on his chest. As soon as the adults tried to approach the boy, the kitten arched its back and hissed. He probably felt formidable to himself, driving away strangers from his new friend.

Maxim, of course, caught a cold after swimming in cold water, and he was again scolded for a long time, but he found a new friend and performed a real chivalrous feat.