What year did the Eastern Roman Empire begin? Fall of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire

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Less than 80 years after the partition, the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist, leaving Byzantium the historical, cultural and civilizational successor of Ancient Rome for almost ten centuries of late Antiquity and the Middle Ages.

The name "Byzantine" Eastern Roman Empire received in the writings of Western European historians after its fall, it comes from the original name of Constantinople - Byzantium, where the Roman emperor Constantine I transferred the capital of the Roman Empire in 330, officially renaming the city to "New Rome". The Byzantines themselves called themselves Romans - in Greek "Romeans", and their power - "Roman (" Roman ") Empire" (in the Middle Greek (Byzantine) language - Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, Basileía Romaíon) or briefly "Romania" (Ῥωμανία, Romania) . Western sources throughout most of Byzantine history referred to it as the "Empire of the Greeks" due to its predominance of the Greek language, Hellenized population and culture. In Ancient Russia, Byzantium was usually called the "Greek Kingdom", and its capital - Tsargrad.

The permanent capital and civilizational center of the Byzantine Empire was Constantinople, one of the largest cities in the medieval world. The empire controlled the largest possessions under Emperor Justinian I (527-565), regaining for several decades a significant part of the coastal territories of the former western provinces of Rome and the position of the most powerful Mediterranean power. In the future, under the onslaught of numerous enemies, the state gradually lost land.

After the Slavic, Lombard, Visigothic and Arab conquests, the empire occupied only the territory of Greece and Asia Minor. Some strengthening in the 9th-11th centuries was replaced by serious losses at the end of the 11th century, during the invasion of the Seljuks, and the defeat at Manzikert, strengthening during the first Komnenos, after the collapse of the country under the blows of the crusaders who took Constantinople in 1204, another strengthening under John Vatatzes, restoration empire by Michael Palaiologos, and, finally, the final death in the middle of the 15th century under the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks.

Population

The ethnic composition of the population of the Byzantine Empire, especially at the first stage of its history, was extremely diverse: Greeks, Italians, Syrians, Copts, Armenians, Jews, Hellenized Asia Minor tribes, Thracians, Illyrians, Dacians, southern Slavs. With the reduction of the territory of Byzantium (starting from the end of the 6th century), part of the peoples remained outside its borders - at the same time, new peoples invaded and settled here (the Goths in the 4th-5th centuries, the Slavs in the 6th-7th centuries, the Arabs in the 7th-9th centuries, Pechenegs, Cumans in the XI-XIII centuries, etc.). In the VI-XI centuries, the population of Byzantium included ethnic groups, from which the Italian nationality was later formed. The predominant role in the economy, political life and culture of Byzantium in the west of the country was played by the Greek population, and in the east by the Armenian population. The state language of Byzantium in the 4th-6th centuries is Latin, from the 7th century until the end of the existence of the empire - Greek.

State structure

From the Roman Empire, Byzantium inherited a monarchical form of government with an emperor at the head. From the 7th century The head of state was often referred to as an autocrator (Greek: Αὐτοκράτωρ - autocrat) or basileus (Greek. Βασιλεὺς ).

The Byzantine Empire consisted of two prefectures - East and Illyricum, each of which was headed by prefects: the prefect of the praetoria of the East and the prefect of the praetoria of Illyricum. Constantinople was singled out as a separate unit, headed by the prefect of the city of Constantinople.

For a long time, the former system of state and financial management was preserved. But from the end of the VI century, significant changes begin. The reforms are mainly related to defense (administrative division into themes instead of exarchates) and predominantly Greek culture of the country (introduction of the positions of logothete, strategist, drungaria, etc.). Since the 10th century, feudal principles of governance have been widely spread, this process has led to the approval of representatives of the feudal aristocracy on the throne. Until the very end of the empire, numerous rebellions and the struggle for the imperial throne do not stop.

The two highest military officials were the commander-in-chief of the infantry and the chief of the cavalry, these positions were later merged; in the capital there were two masters of infantry and cavalry (Stratig Opsikia). In addition, there was a master of infantry and cavalry of the East (Strateg of Anatolika), a master of infantry and cavalry of Illyricum, a master of infantry and cavalry of Thrace (Stratig of Thrace).

Byzantine emperors

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), the Eastern Roman Empire continued to exist for nearly a thousand years; in historiography, from that time on, it is usually called Byzantium.

The ruling class of Byzantium is characterized by mobility. At all times, a man from the bottom could break through to power. In some cases, it was even easier for him: for example, there was an opportunity to make a career in the army and earn military glory. So, for example, Emperor Michael II Travl was an uneducated mercenary, was sentenced to death by Emperor Leo V for rebellion, and his execution was postponed only because of the celebration of Christmas (820); Vasily I was a peasant, and then a horse rider in the service of a noble nobleman. Roman I Lecapenus was also a native of peasants, Michael IV, before becoming emperor, was a money changer, like one of his brothers.

Army

Although Byzantium inherited its army from the Roman Empire, its structure approached the phalanx system of the Hellenic states. By the end of the existence of Byzantium, she became mostly mercenary and was distinguished by a rather low combat capability.

On the other hand, a military command and control system was developed in detail, works on strategy and tactics are published, various technical means are widely used, in particular, a system of beacons is built to warn of enemy attacks. In contrast to the old Roman army, the importance of the fleet is greatly increasing, which the invention of "Greek fire" helps to gain dominance at sea. The Sassanids adopted a fully armored cavalry - cataphracts. At the same time, technically complex throwing weapons, ballistas and catapults, replaced by simpler stone throwers, are disappearing.

The transition to the theme system of recruiting troops provided the country with 150 years of successful wars, but the financial exhaustion of the peasantry and its transition to dependence on the feudal lords led to a gradual decrease in combat capability. The recruiting system was changed to a typically feudal one, where the nobility was required to supply military contingents for the right to own land.

In the future, the army and navy fall into ever greater decline, and at the very end of the existence of the empire they are purely mercenary formations. In 1453, Constantinople, with a population of 60,000 inhabitants, was able to field only a 5,000-strong army and 2,500 mercenaries. Since the 10th century, the emperors of Constantinople hired Russ and warriors from neighboring barbarian tribes. From the 11th century, ethnically mixed Varangians played a significant role in the heavy infantry, and the light cavalry was recruited from Turkic nomads.

After the Viking Age came to an end in the early 11th century, mercenaries from Scandinavia (as well as Normandy and England conquered by the Vikings) rushed to Byzantium across the Mediterranean. The future Norwegian king Harald the Severe fought for several years in the Varangian guard throughout the Mediterranean. The Varangian Guard bravely defended Constantinople from the crusaders in 1204 and were defeated during the capture of the city.

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Start date: 395

Expiration date: 1453

Helpful information

Byzantine Empire
Byzantium
Eastern Roman Empire
Arab. لإمبراطورية البيزنطية or بيزنطة
English Byzantine Empire or Byzantium
Hebrew האימפריה הביזנטית

Culture and society

Of great cultural significance was the period of the reign of emperors from Basil I the Macedonian to Alexios I Comnenus (867-1081). The essential features of this period of history are the high rise of Byzantinism and the spread of its cultural mission to southeastern Europe. Through the work of the famous Byzantines Cyril and Methodius, the Slavic alphabet appeared - Glagolitic, which led to the emergence of their own written literature among the Slavs. Patriarch Photius put up barriers to the claims of the Roman popes and theoretically substantiated the right of Constantinople to church independence from Rome (see Separation of Churches).

In the scientific sphere, this period is distinguished by unusual fertility and a variety of literary enterprises. In the collections and adaptations of this period, precious historical, literary and archaeological material, borrowed from writers now lost, has been preserved.

Economy

The state included rich lands with a large number of cities - Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece. In the cities, artisans and merchants united into estates. Belonging to a class was not a duty, but a privilege; joining it was subject to a number of conditions. The conditions established by the eparch (mayor) for the 22 estates of Constantinople were summarized in the 10th century in a collection of decrees, the Book of the eparch.

Despite a corrupt system of government, very high taxes, a slave economy and court intrigues, the Byzantine economy for a long time was the strongest in Europe. Trade was conducted with all the former Roman possessions in the west and with India (through the Sassanids and Arabs) in the east. Even after the Arab conquests, the empire was very rich. But the financial costs were also very high, and the wealth of the country caused great envy. The decline in trade caused by the privileges granted to Italian merchants, the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders and the onslaught of the Turks led to the final weakening of finances and the state as a whole.

Science, medicine, law

Byzantine science throughout the entire period of the existence of the state was in close connection with ancient philosophy and metaphysics. The main activity of scientists was in the applied plane, where a number of remarkable successes were achieved, such as the construction of St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople and the invention of Greek fire. At the same time, pure science practically did not develop either in terms of creating new theories or in terms of developing the ideas of ancient thinkers. From the era of Justinian until the end of the first millennium, scientific knowledge was in a severe decline, but subsequently Byzantine scientists again showed themselves, especially in astronomy and mathematics, already relying on the achievements of Arabic and Persian science.

Medicine was one of the few branches of knowledge in which progress was made compared to antiquity. The influence of Byzantine medicine was felt both in the Arab countries and in Europe during the Renaissance.

In the last century of the empire, Byzantium played an important role in the dissemination of ancient Greek literature in Italy during the early Renaissance. By that time, the Academy of Trebizond had become the main center for the study of astronomy and mathematics.

Right

The reforms of Justinian I in the field of law had a great influence on the development of jurisprudence. Byzantine criminal law was largely borrowed from Russia.

The end has come. But at the beginning of the 4th c. the center of the state moved to the calmer and richer eastern, Balkan and Asia Minor provinces. Soon Constantinople, founded by Emperor Constantine on the site of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium, became the capital. True, the West also had its own emperors - the administration of the empire was divided. But it was the sovereigns of Constantinople who were considered elders. In the 5th century The Eastern, or Byzantine, as they said in the West, the empire withstood the attack of the barbarians. Moreover, in the VI century. its rulers conquered many lands of the West occupied by the Germans and held them for two centuries. Then they were Roman emperors, not only in title, but also in essence. Having lost by the IX century. a large part of the western possessions, Byzantine Empire nevertheless continued to live and develop. She existed before 1453., when the last stronghold of her power - Constantinople fell under the pressure of the Turks. All this time, the empire remained in the eyes of its subjects as a legitimate successor. Its inhabitants called themselves Romans, which in Greek means "Romans", although the main part of the population were Greeks.

The geographical position of Byzantium, which spread its possessions on two continents - in Europe and Asia, and sometimes extended power to the regions of Africa, made this empire, as it were, a link between East and West. The constant bifurcation between the eastern and western worlds became the historical destiny of the Byzantine Empire. The mixture of Greco-Roman and Eastern traditions left its mark on public life, statehood, religious and philosophical ideas, culture and art of Byzantine society. However, Byzantium went on its own historical way, in many respects different from the fate of the countries of both the East and the West, which determined the features of its culture.

Map of the Byzantine Empire

History of the Byzantine Empire

The culture of the Byzantine Empire was created by many nations. In the first centuries of the existence of the Roman state, all the eastern provinces of Rome were under the rule of its emperors: Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, southern Crimea, Western Armenia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, northeast Libya. The creators of the new cultural unity were the Romans, Armenians, Syrians, Egyptian Copts and the barbarians who settled within the borders of the empire.

The most powerful cultural layer in this cultural diversity was the ancient heritage. Long before the emergence of the Byzantine Empire, thanks to the campaigns of Alexander the Great, all the peoples of the Middle East were subjected to the powerful unifying influence of ancient Greek, Hellenic culture. This process is called Hellenization. Adopted Greek traditions and immigrants from the West. So the culture of the renewed empire developed as a continuation of the mainly ancient Greek culture. Greek language already in the 7th century. reigned supreme in the written and oral speech of the Romans (Romans).

The East, unlike the West, did not experience devastating barbarian raids. Because there was no terrible cultural decline. Most of the ancient Greco-Roman cities continued to exist in the Byzantine world. In the first centuries of the new era, they retained their former appearance and structure. As in Hellas, the agora remained the heart of the city - a vast square where public meetings were previously held. Now, however, people increasingly gathered at the hippodrome - a place of performances and races, announcements of decrees and public executions. The city was decorated with fountains and statues, magnificent houses of local nobility and public buildings. In the capital - Constantinople - the best masters erected monumental palaces of emperors. The most famous of the early ones - the Great Imperial Palace of Justinian I, the famous conqueror of the Germans, who ruled in 527-565 - was erected over the Sea of ​​Marmara. The appearance and decoration of the capital's palaces reminded of the times of the ancient Greek-Macedonian rulers of the Middle East. But the Byzantines also used the Roman urban planning experience, in particular the plumbing system and baths (terms).

Most of the major cities of antiquity remained centers of trade, crafts, science, literature and art. Such were Athens and Corinth in the Balkans, Ephesus and Nicaea in Asia Minor, Antioch, Jerusalem and Berytus (Beirut) in Syro-Palestines, Alexandria in ancient Egypt.

The collapse of many cities in the West led to the shift of trade routes to the east. At the same time, barbarian invasions and conquests made land roads unsafe. Law and order were preserved only in the possessions of the emperors of Constantinople. Therefore, the "dark" centuries filled with wars (V-VIII centuries) became sometimes heyday of Byzantine ports. They served as transit points for military detachments sent to numerous wars, and as stations for the strongest Byzantine fleet in Europe. But the main meaning and source of their existence was maritime trade. The commercial relations of the Romans stretched from India to Britain.

Ancient crafts continued to develop in the cities. Many products of early Byzantine masters are real works of art. The masterpieces of Roman jewelers - made of precious metals and stones, colored glass and ivory - aroused admiration in the countries of the Middle East and barbarian Europe. Germans, Slavs, Huns adopted the skills of the Romans, imitated them in their own creations.

Coins in the Byzantine Empire

For a long time, only Roman coins circulated throughout Europe. The emperors of Constantinople continued to mint Roman money, making only minor changes to their appearance. The right of the Roman emperors to power was not questioned even by fierce enemies, and the only mint in Europe was proof of this. The first in the West to dare to start minting his own coin was the Frankish king in the second half of the 6th century. However, even then the barbarians only imitated the Roman model.

Legacy of the Roman Empire

The Roman heritage of Byzantium is even more noticeable in the system of government. Politicians and philosophers of Byzantium did not get tired of repeating that Constantinople is the New Rome, that they themselves are Romans, and their state is the only empire protected by God. The ramified apparatus of the central government, the tax system, the legal doctrine of the inviolability of the imperial autocracy remained in it without fundamental changes.

The life of the emperor, furnished with extraordinary splendor, admiration for him were inherited from the traditions of the Roman Empire. In the late Roman period, even before the Byzantine era, palace rituals included many elements of Eastern despotisms. Basileus, the emperor, appeared before the people only accompanied by a brilliant retinue and an impressive armed guard, who followed in a strictly defined order. They prostrated themselves before the basileus, during the speech from the throne they covered him with special curtains, and only a few received the right to sit in his presence. Only the highest ranks of the empire were allowed to eat at his meal. The reception of foreign ambassadors, whom the Byzantines tried to impress with the greatness of the emperor's power, was especially pompously arranged.

The central administration was concentrated in several secret departments: the Shvaz department of the logotheta (steward) of the genikon - the main tax institution, the department of the military cash desk, the department of mail and external relations, the department for managing the property of the imperial family, etc. In addition to the staff of officials in the capital, each department had officials sent on temporary assignments to the provinces. There were also palace secrets that controlled the institutions that directly served the royal court: food, wardrobe, stables, repairs.

Byzantium retained Roman law and foundations of Roman judiciary. In the Byzantine era, the development of the Roman theory of law was completed, such theoretical concepts of jurisprudence as law, law, custom were finalized, the difference between private and public law was clarified, the foundations for regulating international relations, the norms of criminal law and process were determined.

The legacy of the Roman Empire was a clear tax system. A free citizen or peasant paid taxes and duties to the treasury from all types of his property and from any kind of labor activity. He paid for land ownership, and for a garden in a city, and for a mule or sheep in a barn, and for a room for rent, and for a workshop, and for a shop, and for a ship, and for a boat. Practically not a single product on the market passed from hand to hand, bypassing the watchful eye of officials.

Warfare

Byzantium also preserved the Roman art of waging a "correct war." The empire carefully kept, copied and studied ancient strategons - treatises on martial arts.

Periodically, the authorities reformed the army, partly because of the emergence of new enemies, partly to meet the capabilities and needs of the state itself. The basis of the Byzantine army became the cavalry. Its number in the army ranged from 20% in late Roman times to more than one third in the 10th century. An insignificant part, but very combat-ready, became cataphracts - heavy cavalry.

navy Byzantium was also a direct inheritance of Rome. The following facts speak of his strength. In the middle of the 7th century Emperor Constantine V was able to send 500 ships to the mouth of the Danube to conduct military operations against the Bulgarians, and in 766 - even more than 2 thousand. The largest ships (dromons) with three rows of oars took on board up to 100-150 soldiers and about the same rowers.

An innovation in the fleet was "greek fire"- a mixture of oil, combustible oils, sulfur asphalt, - invented in the 7th century. and terrified enemies. He was thrown out of the siphons, arranged in the form of bronze monsters with open mouths. Siphons could be turned in different directions. The ejected liquid spontaneously ignited and burned even on water. It was with the help of "Greek fire" that the Byzantines repulsed two Arab invasions - in 673 and 718.

Military construction was excellently developed in the Byzantine Empire, based on a rich engineering tradition. Byzantine engineers - builders of fortresses were famous far beyond the borders of the country, even in distant Khazaria, where a fortress was built according to their plans

The large seaside cities, in addition to the walls, were protected by underwater breakwaters and massive chains that blocked the entrance of the enemy fleet to the bays. Such chains closed the Golden Horn in Constantinople and the Gulf of Thessaloniki.

For the defense and siege of fortresses, the Byzantines used various engineering structures (ditches and palisades, tunnels and embankments) and all kinds of tools. Byzantine documents mention rams, movable towers with bridges, stone-throwing ballistas, hooks for capturing and destroying enemy siege devices, cauldrons from which boiling tar and molten lead were poured onto the heads of the besiegers.

Probably, there is no other more long-suffering country in the world than Byzantium. Its dizzying rise and such a rapid fall still cause controversy and discussion both in historical circles and among those who are far from history. The bitter fate of the once strongest state of the early Middle Ages does not leave indifferent either writers or filmmakers - books, films, serials, one way or another connected with this state, are constantly being published. But the question is - are they all true? And how to distinguish truth from fiction? After all, so many centuries have passed, many documents of colossal historical value have been lost during wars, seizures, fires, or simply by order of a new ruler. But we will still try to reveal some details of the development of Byzantium in order to understand how such a strong state could meet such a miserable and inglorious end?

History of creation

The Byzantine Empire, often referred to as the Eastern or simply Byzantium, existed from 330 to 1453. With its capital at Constantinople, founded by Constantine I (r. 306-337 AD), the empire changed in size over the centuries, at one time or another, with territories located in Italy, the Balkans, the Levant, the Lesser Asia and North Africa. The Byzantines developed their own political systems, religious practices, art and architecture.

The beginning of the history of Byzantium is 330 AD. At this time, the legendary Roman Empire was going through hard times - the rulers were constantly changing, money was flowing from the treasury like sand through fingers, once conquered territories easily won their right to freedom. The capital of the empire, Rome, is becoming an unsafe place to live. In 324, Flavius ​​Valerius Aurelius Constantine became emperor, who went down in history only under his last name - Constantine the Great. Having defeated all other rivals, he reigns in the Roman Empire, but decides on an unprecedented step - the transfer of the capital.

In those days, it was quite calm in the provinces - all the thick of events took place in Rome. The choice of Constantine fell on the banks of the Bosporus, where in the same year the construction of a new city began, which would be given the name Byzantium. After 6 years, Constantine - the first Roman emperor who gave Christianity to the ancient world - announces that from now on the new city is the capital of the empire. Initially, the emperor adhered to the old rules and named the capital New Rome. However, the name did not stick. Since in its place there was once also a city called Byzantium, they left it. Then the locals began to informally use another, but more popular name - Constantinople, the city of Constantine.

Constantinople

The new capital had an excellent natural harbor at the entrance to the Golden Horn and, owning the border between Europe and Asia, could control the passage of ships through the Bosphorus from the Aegean to the Black Sea, linking profitable trade between West and East. It should be noted that the new state actively used this advantage. And, oddly enough, the city was well fortified. A great chain stretched across the entrance to the Golden Horn, and the construction of the massive walls by Emperor Theodosius (between 410 and 413) meant that the city was able to withstand attacks from both sea and land. Over the centuries, as more impressive buildings were added, the cosmopolitan city became one of the finest of any era, and by far the richest, most lavish, and most important Christian city in the world. In general, Byzantium occupied vast territories on the world map - the countries of the Balkan Peninsula, the Aegean and Black Sea coasts of Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania - all of them were once part of Byzantium.

Another, important detail should be noted - Christianity became the official religion in the new city. That is, those who were mercilessly persecuted and brutally executed in the Roman Empire found shelter and peace in a new country. Unfortunately, Emperor Constantine did not see the flowering of his offspring - he died in 337. The new rulers paid more and more attention to the new city on the outskirts of the empire. In 379, Theodosius gained control of the eastern provinces. First as a co-ruler, and in 394 he began to rule independently. It is he who is considered the last Roman emperor, which is generally true - in 395, when he died, the Roman Empire split into two parts - Western and Eastern. That is, Byzantium received the official status of the capital of the new empire, which also became known as Byzantium. Starting from this year, a new country is being counted on the map of the ancient world and the emerging Middle Ages.

Rulers of Byzantium

The Byzantine emperor also received a new title - he was no longer called Caesar in the Roman manner. The Basileusses ruled in the Eastern Empire (from the Greek Βασιλιας - king). They lived in the magnificent Grand Palace of Constantinople and ruled Byzantium with an iron fist, like absolute monarchs. The Church received great power in the state. In those days, military talents meant a lot, and citizens expected their rulers to skillfully fight and protect their native walls from the enemy. Therefore, the army in Byzantium was one of the most powerful and strong. The generals, if desired, could easily overthrow the emperor if they saw that he was not able to protect the city and the borders of the empire.

However, in ordinary life, the emperor was the commander-in-chief of the army, the head of the Church and the government, he controlled the public finances and appointed or dismissed ministers at will; few rulers before or since have ever wielded such power. The image of the emperor appeared on Byzantine coins, which also depicted the chosen successor, often the eldest son, but not always, as there were no clearly established rules of succession. Very often (if not to say - always) the heirs were called the names of their ancestors, so Constantine, Justinian, Theodosius were born in the imperial family from generation to generation. The name Konstantin was the most beloved.

The heyday of the empire began with the reign of Justinian - from 527 to 565. it is he who will slowly begin to modify the empire - Hellenistic culture will prevail in Byzantium, instead of Latin, Greek will be recognized as the official language. Justinian would also adopt the legendary Roman law in Constantinople - many European states would borrow it in later years. It was during his reign that the construction of the symbol of Constantinople - the Hagia Sophia (on the site of the former burnt temple) will begin.

Byzantine culture

It is impossible not to mention the culture of this state when talking about Byzantium. It influenced many subsequent countries of both the West and the East.

The culture of Byzantium is inextricably linked with religion - beautiful icons and mosaics depicting the emperor and his family became the main decoration of the temples. Subsequently, some were canonized as saints, and already former rulers became icons to be worshiped.

It is impossible not to note the appearance of the Glagolitic alphabet - the Slavic alphabet by the works of the brothers - the Byzantines Cyril and Methodius. Byzantine science was inextricably linked with antiquity. Many works of writers of that time were based on the works of ancient Greek scientists and philosophers. Medicine achieved particular success, and so much so that even Arab healers used Byzantine works in their works.

The architecture was distinguished by its special style. As already mentioned, the symbol of Constantinople and all of Byzantium was Hagia Sophia. The temple was so beautiful and majestic that many ambassadors, coming to the city, could not restrain their delight.

Looking ahead, we note that after the fall of the city, Sultan Mehmed II was so fascinated by the cathedral that from now on he ordered mosques to be built throughout the empire exactly on the model of Hagia Sophia.

Campaigns to Byzantium

Unfortunately, such a rich and advantageously located state could not but arouse unhealthy interest. Byzantium has been repeatedly attacked by other states over the centuries of its existence. Since the 11th century, the Byzantines constantly repulsed the raids of the Bulgarians and Arabs. At first, things went well. The Bulgarian Tsar Samuil was so shocked to see that he had suffered a stroke and died. And the thing was - during a successful attack, the Byzantines captured almost 14 thousand Bulgarian soldiers. Vasilevs Vasily II ordered to blind everyone and leave one eye for every hundredth soldier. Byzantium showed all the neighbors that you should not joke with her. For the time being.

1204 was the first news of the end of the empire - the crusaders attacked the city and completely plundered it. The creation of the Latin Empire was announced, all the lands were divided among the barons who participated in the campaign. However, here the Byzantines were lucky - after 57 years, Michael Palaiologos expelled all the crusaders from Byzantium and revived the Eastern Empire. He also created a new dynasty of Palaiologos. But, unfortunately, it was not possible to achieve the former heyday of the empire - the emperors fell under the influence of Genoa and Venice, constantly robbed the treasury and carried out every decree from Italy. Byzantium was weakening.

Gradually, territories separated from the empire and became free states. By the middle of the 15th century, only a memory remained of the former flower of the Bosphorus. It was easy prey. This is what the Sultan of the young Ottoman Empire Mehmed II took advantage of. In 1453 he easily invaded Constantinople and conquered it. The city resisted, but not for long and not strongly. Before this sultan, the Rumeli (Rumelihisar) fortress was built on the Bosphorus, which blocked all communications between the city and the Black Sea. The possibility of helping Byzantium from other states was also cut off. Several attacks were repulsed, the last - on the night of May 28-29 - was unsuccessful. The last emperor of Byzantium died in battle. The army was exhausted. The Turks were no longer held back. Mehmed entered the city on horseback and ordered the beautiful Hagia Sophia to be converted into a mosque. The history of Byzantium ended with the fall of its capital, Constantinople. Pearls of the Bosphorus.

Constantinople - in the center of the world

On May 11, 330 AD, on the European coast of the Bosporus, the Roman emperor Constantine the Great solemnly founded the new capital of the empire - Constantinople (and to be precise and use its official name, then - New Rome). The emperor did not create a new state: Byzantium, in the exact sense of the word, was not the successor to the Roman Empire, it was Rome itself. The word "Byzantium" appeared only in the West during the Renaissance. The Byzantines called themselves the Romans (Romans), their country - the Roman Empire (Empire of the Romans). Constantine's plans corresponded to such a name. New Rome was erected at the main crossroads of the main trade routes and was originally planned as the greatest of the cities. Built in the 6th century, Hagia Sophia was the tallest architectural structure on Earth for more than a thousand years, and its beauty was compared with Heaven.

Until the middle of the XII century, New Rome was the main trading hub of the planet. Before being devastated by the crusaders in 1204, it was also the most populated city in Europe. Later, especially in the last century and a half, more economically significant centers appeared on the globe. But in our time, the strategic importance of this place could not be overestimated. Owning the straits of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, he owned the entire Near and Middle East, and this is the heart of Eurasia and the entire Old World. In the 19th century, the real owner of the straits was the British Empire, which protected this place from Russia even at the cost of an open military conflict (during the Crimean War of 1853-1856, and the war could start in 1836 and 1878). For Russia, it was not just a matter of "historical heritage", but the ability to control its southern borders and main trade flows. After 1945, the keys to the straits were in the hands of the United States, and the deployment of American nuclear weapons in this region, as is known, immediately caused the appearance of Soviet missiles in Cuba and provoked the Cuban Missile Crisis. The USSR agreed to retreat only after the curtailment of the American nuclear potential in Turkey. Today, the issues of Turkey's entry into the European Union and its foreign policy in Asia are paramount problems for the West.

They only dreamed of peace

New Rome received a rich inheritance. However, this became his main "headache". In his contemporary world, there were too many applicants for the assignment of this inheritance. It is difficult to recall even one long period of calm on the Byzantine borders; the empire was in mortal danger at least once a century. Until the 7th century, the Romans, along the perimeter of all their borders, waged the most difficult wars with the Persians, Goths, Vandals, Slavs and Avars, and in the end the confrontation ended in favor of the New Rome. This happened very often: young and fresh peoples who fought the empire went into historical oblivion, and the empire itself, ancient and almost defeated, licked its wounds and continued to live. However, then the former enemies were replaced by the Arabs from the south, the Lombards from the west, the Bulgarians from the north, the Khazars from the east, and a new centuries-old confrontation began. As the new opponents weakened, they were replaced in the north by the Rus, Hungarians, Pechenegs, Cumans, in the east by the Seljuk Turks, in the west by the Normans.

In the fight against enemies, the empire used force, diplomacy honed over the centuries, intelligence, military cunning, and sometimes the services of allies. The last resort was double-edged and extremely dangerous. The crusaders who fought with the Seljuks were extremely burdensome and dangerous allies for the empire, and this alliance ended with the first fall for Constantinople: the city, which had successfully fought off any attacks and sieges for almost a thousand years, was brutally devastated by its “friends”. Its further existence, even after the liberation from the crusaders, was only a shadow of the previous glory. But just at that time, the last and most cruel enemy appeared - the Ottoman Turks, who surpassed all previous ones in their military qualities. The Europeans really got ahead of the Ottomans in military affairs only in the 18th century, and the Russians were the first to do this, and the first commander who dared to appear in the inner regions of the Sultan's empire was Count Peter Rumyantsev, for which he received the honorary name Zadanaisky.

Indefatigable subjects

The internal state of the Roman Empire was also never calm. Its state territory was extremely heterogeneous. At one time, the Roman Empire maintained its unity through superior military, commercial, and cultural capabilities. The legal system (the famous Roman law, finally codified in Byzantium) was the most perfect in the world. For several centuries (since the time of Spartacus), Rome, within which more than a quarter of all mankind lived, was not threatened by any serious danger, wars were fought on distant borders - in Germany, Armenia, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). Only internal decay, the crisis of the army and the weakening of trade led to disintegration. Only from the end of the 4th century did the situation on the borders become critical. The need to repel barbarian invasions in different directions inevitably led to the division of power in a vast empire between several people. However, this also had negative consequences - internal confrontation, further weakening of ties and the desire to "privatize" their piece of imperial territory. As a result, by the 5th century, the final division of the Roman Empire was a fact, but did not alleviate the situation.

The eastern half of the Roman Empire was more populated and Christianized (by the time of Constantine the Great, Christians, despite the persecution, there were already more than 10% of the population), but in itself did not constitute an organic whole. An amazing ethnic diversity reigned in the state: Greeks, Syrians, Copts, Arabs, Armenians, Illyrians lived here, Slavs, Germans, Scandinavians, Anglo-Saxons, Turks, Italians and many other nationalities soon appeared, from whom they were only required to confess the true faith and submit to imperial power. . Its richest provinces - Egypt and Syria - were geographically too far from the capital, fenced off by mountain ranges and deserts. Sea communication with them, as trade declined and piracy flourished, became more and more difficult. In addition, the overwhelming majority of the population here were adherents of the Monophysite heresy. After the victory of Orthodoxy at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, a powerful uprising broke out in these provinces, which was suppressed with great difficulty. In less than 200 years, the Monophysites joyfully greeted the Arab "liberators" and subsequently converted to Islam relatively painlessly. The western and central provinces of the empire, primarily the Balkans, but also Asia Minor, for many centuries experienced a massive influx of barbarian tribes - Germans, Slavs, Turks. Emperor Justinian the Great in the 6th century tried to expand the state limits in the west and restore the Roman Empire to its "natural borders", but this led to colossal efforts and costs. A century later, Byzantium was forced to shrink to the limits of its “state core”, predominantly inhabited by Greeks and Hellenized Slavs. This territory included the west of Asia Minor, the Black Sea coast, the Balkans and southern Italy. The further struggle for existence was mainly going on already in this territory.

The people and the army are united

The constant struggle required the constant maintenance of defense capability. The Roman Empire was forced to revive the peasant militia and heavily armed cavalry, characteristic of Ancient Rome of the republican period, to re-create and maintain a powerful navy at state expense. Defense has always been the main expense of the treasury and the main burden for the taxpayer. The state kept a close eye on the fact that the peasants retained their fighting capacity, and therefore strengthened the community in every possible way, preventing its disintegration. The state struggled with the excessive concentration of wealth, including land, in private hands. State regulation of prices was a very important part of the policy. A powerful state apparatus, of course, gave rise to the omnipotence of officials and large-scale corruption. Active emperors fought against abuses, inert ones started the disease.

Of course, slow social stratification and limited competition slowed down the pace of economic development, but the fact of the matter was that the empire had more important tasks. Not from a good life, the Byzantines equipped their armed forces with all sorts of technical innovations and types of weapons, the most famous of which was the “Greek fire” invented in the 7th century, which brought the Romans more than one victory. The army of the empire maintained its fighting spirit until the second half of the 12th century, until it gave way to foreign mercenaries. The treasury now spent less, but the risk of falling into the hands of the enemy increased immeasurably. Let us recall the classic expression of one of the recognized experts on the issue - Napoleon Bonaparte: the people who do not want to feed their own army will feed someone else's. Since that time, the empire has become dependent on Western "friends", who immediately showed her how much friendship is.

Autocracy as a recognized necessity

The circumstances of Byzantine life strengthened the perceived need for the autocratic power of the emperor (basileus of the Romans). But too much depended on his personality, character, abilities. That is why the empire developed a flexible system for the transfer of supreme power. In specific circumstances, power could be transferred not only to a son, but also to a nephew, son-in-law, brother-in-law, husband, adopted successor, even one's own father or mother. The transfer of power was consolidated by the decision of the Senate and the army, popular approval, church wedding (since the 10th century, the practice of imperial chrismation, borrowed in the West, was introduced). As a result, the imperial dynasties rarely experienced their centenary, only the most talented - the Macedonian - dynasty managed to hold out for almost two centuries - from 867 to 1056. A person of low birth could also be on the throne, who advanced thanks to one talent or another (for example, a butcher from Dacia Lev Makella, a commoner from Dalmatia and the uncle of the Great Justinian Justin I, or the son of an Armenian peasant Vasily the Macedonian - the founder of that same Macedonian dynasty). The tradition of co-rulers was extremely developed (co-rulers sat on the Byzantine throne in general for about two hundred years). Power had to be firmly held in the hands: in the entire Byzantine history, there were about forty successful coups d'etat, usually they ended in the death of the defeated ruler or his removal to the monastery. Only half of the basileus died on the throne with their death.

Empire as a catechon

The very existence of the empire was for Byzantium more of a duty and a duty than an advantage or a rational choice. The ancient world, the only direct heir of which was the Empire of the Romans, has gone into the historical past. However, his cultural and political legacy became the foundation of Byzantium. The empire from the time of Constantine was also the stronghold of the Christian faith. The basis of the state political doctrine was the idea of ​​the empire as a "katechon" - the guardian of the true faith. The barbarian-Germans who flooded the entire western part of the Roman ecumene adopted Christianity, but only in the Arian heretical version. The only major "acquisition" of the Ecumenical Church in the west until the 8th century was the Franks. Having accepted the Nicene Creed, King Clovis of the Franks immediately received the spiritual and political support of the Roman Patriarch-Pope and the Byzantine Emperor. This began the growth of the power of the Franks in the west of Europe: Clovis was granted the title of Byzantine patrician, and his distant successor Charlemagne, three centuries later, already wanted to be called the emperor of the West.

The Byzantine mission of that period could well compete with the Western one. Missionaries of the Church of Constantinople preached in the space of Central and Eastern Europe - from the Czech Republic to Novgorod and Khazaria; close contacts with the Byzantine Church were maintained by the English and Irish Local Churches. However, papal Rome quite early became jealous of competitors and expelled them by force, and soon the mission itself in the papal West acquired an openly aggressive character and predominantly political tasks. The first large-scale action after the fall of Rome from Orthodoxy was the papal blessing of William the Conqueror on a campaign in England in 1066; after that, many representatives of the Orthodox Anglo-Saxon nobility were forced to emigrate to Constantinople.

Within the Byzantine Empire itself, there were heated disputes on religious grounds. Now among the people, now in power, heretical currents arose. Under the influence of Islam, the emperors began iconoclastic persecution in the 8th century, which provoked resistance from the Orthodox people. In the 13th century, out of a desire to strengthen relations with the Catholic world, the authorities went to the union, but again did not receive support. All attempts to "reform" Orthodoxy on the basis of opportunistic considerations or to bring it under "earthly standards" failed. A new union in the 15th century, concluded under the threat of Ottoman conquest, could no longer even ensure political success. It has become history's bitter grin at the vain ambitions of rulers.

What is the advantage of the West?

When and in what way did the West begin to take over? As always, in economics and technology. In the sphere of culture and law, science and education, literature and art, Byzantium until the 12th century easily competed or was far ahead of its Western neighbors. The powerful cultural influence of Byzantium was felt in the West and East far beyond its borders - in Arab Spain and Norman Britain, and in Catholic Italy it dominated until the Renaissance. However, due to the very conditions of the existence of the empire, it could not boast of special socio-economic successes. In addition, Italy and Southern France were initially more favorable for agricultural activity than the Balkans and Asia Minor. In the XII-XIV centuries in Western Europe there is a rapid economic rise - one that has not been since ancient times and will not be then until the XVIII century. This was the heyday of feudalism, the papacy and chivalry. It was at this time that a special feudal structure of Western European society with its class-corporate rights and contractual relations arose and established itself (the modern West emerged precisely from this).

Western influence on the Byzantine emperors from the Komnenos dynasty in the 12th century was the strongest: they copied Western military art, Western fashion, and for a long time acted as allies of the Crusaders. The Byzantine fleet, so burdensome for the treasury, was disbanded and rotted, its place was taken by the fleets of the Venetians and Genoese. The emperors cherished the hope of overcoming the recent falling away of papal Rome. However, the strengthened Rome already recognized only complete submission to its will. The West marveled at the imperial splendor and, in order to justify its aggressiveness, loudly resented the duplicity and depravity of the Greeks.

Were the Greeks drowning in depravity? Sin was side by side with grace. The horrors of palaces and city squares alternated with the genuine sanctity of the monasteries and the sincere piety of the laity. Evidence of this is the lives of the saints, liturgical texts, high and unsurpassed Byzantine art. But the temptations were very strong. After the defeat of 1204 in Byzantium, the pro-Western trend only intensified, young people went to study in Italy, and among the intelligentsia there was a craving for the pagan Hellenic tradition. Philosophical rationalism and European scholasticism (and it was based on the same pagan learning) began to be regarded in this milieu as higher and more refined teachings than patristic ascetic theology. Intellect took precedence over Revelation, individualism over Christian achievement. Later, these trends, together with the Greeks who moved to the West, would greatly contribute to the development of the Western European Renaissance.

Historical scope

The empire survived the struggle against the crusaders: on the Asian shore of the Bosporus, opposite the defeated Constantinople, the Romans retained their territory and proclaimed a new emperor. Half a century later, the capital was liberated and held out for another 200 years. However, the territory of the revived empire was practically reduced to the great city itself, several islands in the Aegean Sea and small territories in Greece. But even without this epilogue, the Roman Empire existed for almost a millennium. It is possible in this case not even to take into account the fact that Byzantium directly continues the ancient Roman statehood, and considered the founding of Rome in 753 BC as its birth. Even without these reservations, there is no other such example in world history. Empires last for years (Napoleon's empire: 1804–1814), decades (German Empire: 1871–1918), at best, for centuries. The Han Empire in China lasted four centuries, the Ottoman Empire and the Arab Caliphate a little more, but by the end of their life cycle they became only a fiction of empires. The West-based Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation was also a fiction for most of its existence. There are not many countries in the world that did not claim imperial status and continuously existed for a thousand years. Finally, Byzantium and its historical predecessor - Ancient Rome - also demonstrated a "world record" of survival: any state on Earth withstood at best one or two global alien invasions, Byzantium - much more. Only Russia could be compared with Byzantium.

Why did Byzantium fall?

Her successors answered this question in different ways. At the beginning of the 16th century, the Pskov elder Philotheus believed that Byzantium, having accepted the union, had betrayed Orthodoxy, and this was the reason for its death. However, he argued that the death of Byzantium was conditional: the status of the Orthodox empire was transferred to the only remaining sovereign Orthodox state - Moscow. In this, according to Philotheus, there was no merit of the Russians themselves, such was God's will. However, the fate of the world now depended on the Russians: if Orthodoxy falls in Russia, then the world will soon end with it. Thus, Filofei warned Moscow of a great historical and religious responsibility. The coat of arms of the Paleologians inherited by Russia - a double-headed eagle - is a symbol of such responsibility, a heavy cross of the imperial burden.

A younger contemporary of the elder, Ivan Timofeev, a professional warrior, pointed to other reasons for the fall of the empire: the emperors, trusting in flattering and irresponsible advisers, despised military affairs and lost combat readiness. Peter the Great also spoke about the sad Byzantine example of the loss of fighting spirit, which caused the death of a great empire: a solemn speech was delivered in the presence of the Senate, Synod and generals in the Trinity Cathedral of St. Petersburg on October 22, 1721, on the day of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God, at the king of the imperial title. As you can see, all three - the elder, the warrior and the newly proclaimed emperor - had in mind close things, only in a different aspect. The power of the Roman Empire rested on strong power, a strong army and the loyalty of its subjects, but they themselves, at the base, had to have a firm and true faith. And in this sense, the empire, or rather all the people who made it up, has always balanced between Eternity and death. In the invariable relevance of this choice, there is an amazing and unique flavor of Byzantine history. In other words, this story in all its light and dark sides is a clear evidence of the correctness of the saying from the order of the Triumph of Orthodoxy: “This is the apostolic faith, this is the paternal faith, this is the Orthodox faith, this is the faith that affirm the universe!”