Lrs definition. Basic terms and concepts of pharmacognosy and medicine

SECTION I. General part

Lecture material on Medicines section: General part

Chapter 1

Medicinal plant materials (MPR) are whole medicinal plants or their parts that have not been subjected to chemical processing and are approved for use in medicine. LRS is used in dried, less often fresh form as medicines or for the production of phytopreparations, as well as for the isolation of medicinal substances. Various organs of medicinal plants are used as MPCs. There are 9 morphological groups of MPV.

Bark (Cortices) - the dried outer part of the trunks, branches of trees and shrubs, located to the periphery of the cambium.

Flowers (Flores) - dried individual flowers or inflorescences, as well as their parts.

Leaves (Folia) - dried or fresh leaves or individual leaflets of a compound leaf with or without petiole.

Fruits (Fructus) - dried or fresh, simple and complex, as well as false fruits, infructescences and their parts.

Seeds (Semina) - dried whole seeds and individual cotyledons. Grass (Herba) - dried or fresh aerial parts of herbaceous plants, consisting of stems with leaves and flowers, partly with buds and

immature fruits.

Shoots (Cormi) - dried or fresh leafy stems of the current year of herbaceous plants, shrubs or subshrubs.

Kidneys (Gemmae) - dried rudiments of shoots of woody plants.

Roots (Radices), rhizomes (Rhizomata), rhizomes and roots (Rhizomata et radices), rhizomes with roots (Rhizomata cum radicibus), bulbs (Bulba), tubers (Tubera), corms (Bulbotubera) - dried or fresh underground organs of perennial plants, freed from dead parts, remnants of stems and leaves.

In accordance with international terminology, the names of medicinal plants and raw materials in pharmacognosy are written in Russian and Latin. According to the binary system of plant naming introduced by Carl Linnaeus, the Latin and Russian names of the plant consist of two words: the first designates the genus, and the second - the plant species, for example Camdula officinalis L. - officinalis calendula. At the end of the Latin name of the plant, the surname of the scientist who first described this plant is indicated in abbreviated form - L. (Linnaeus). Genus and species names are written in italics or underlined in handwritten text. The name of the raw material usually consists of two words: the first denotes the name of plant organs that are harvested as medicinal raw materials (in the form of the nominative plural case), and the second word (in the genitive case) denotes the genus or species of plants. For example, Radices Tagahashi - dandelion roots (the name of the raw material is given by the genus of the plant - Taraxacum officinale), Folia Stramonii - Datura leaves - the name of the raw material is given by the type of plant - Datura stramonium). sometimes used and

generic and specific names of the plant, (for example, Folia Menthae piperitae - peppermint leaves.

Lecture #2

Topic: Procurement of medicinal plant materials

According to the current regulatory and technical documentation in Russia, 220-230 types of medicinal plants are used for medical purposes. Of these, about 130 are processed by the chemical and pharmaceutical industry, and approximately 90 types of medicinal plants after primary processing (drying, grinding, packaging) enter the pharmacy network as a finished drug.

Depending on the needs of healthcare and the actual supply of raw materials to industry, its nomenclature annually undergoes some changes, as a rule, within 10-15%. Certain types of raw materials are excluded from supplies due to the depletion of their natural resources or the cessation of the production of preparations derived from them that have lost their value. At the same time, new types of raw materials for the production of newly created phytopreparations are included in the range of blanks.

Every year, tens of thousands of tons of vegetable raw materials are harvested in our country. The need of the pharmaceutical industry, processing medicinal plants, is satisfied by harvesting wild medicinal plants (more than 150 types of medicinal plants and more than half of the raw materials in mass), cultivated medicinal plants in specialized farms (more than 50 species), as well as through the supply of imported raw materials.

Harvesting of wild-growing VP is carried out on a contractual basis, taking into account the presence of highly productive thickets of medicinal plants in the region and the needs of local processing enterprises and pharmacies under the direct control of local nature protection departments.

Harvesting of wild-growing VP is carried out by the following organizations:

1) Tsentrosoyuz of the Russian Federation, attracting the population to the procurement of raw materials through an extensive network of consumer societies. This is the main supplier of wild-growing VP to the Russian market;

2) the Federal Forestry Service, which organizes the harvesting of wild-growing MHR through regional departments, forestries, timber industry enterprises, forestries;

3) RO "Pharmacia", which through a network of rural pharmacies receives wild-growing HR from the population on a contractual basis.

Food and fish industry enterprises, agricultural cooperatives, hunting farms and other organizations are actively involved in the procurement of raw materials.

Procurement of cultivated HPS. Cultivation of medicinal plants is the most promising source of PM, which in the future will become the main one for meeting the ever-increasing needs for the production of drugs and biologically active food supplements (BAA).

AT culture, first of all, introduce such plants that are not found in

growing wild on the territory of our country, plants with a limited range, a small resource base or endangered.

Growing medicinal plants in specialized farms has a number of advantages. When cultivating medicinal plants, it is possible to carry out breeding work, use various agrotechnical and agrochemical methods that allow increasing plant productivity and obtaining medicinal products with a higher content of biologically active substances (BAS). The cultivation of medicinal plants on plantations makes it possible to mechanize all work on sowing, care, and harvesting of raw materials. The presence of modern stationary dryers and workshops for the primary processing of raw materials makes it possible to significantly improve its quality. These advantages make the harvesting of VP on plantations more productive, the harvest is stable and less dependent on natural conditions, and the quality of VP is high.

JSC "Efirlekrasprom" is the main supplier of cultivated HR to the market of the Russian Federation. This organization coordinates the production of VP on the plantations of specialized farms.

Another source of MPC is the culture of isolated tissues and cells of medicinal plants. On a nutrient medium under certain conditions, young, fast-growing pieces of plant tissue are grown, which have the ability to synthesize biologically active substances characteristic of a given plant. These substances accumulate in the culture medium and in the calus mass resulting from the growth of plant tissues. Raw materials are used for the production of drugs.

General rules for the preparation of medicinal plant materials

Harvesting of raw materials is a process that includes a number of successive stages: the collection of raw materials, primary processing, drying, bringing to a standard state, packaging and storage.

At all stages of the procurement process, the activities of procurement organizations should be aimed at preserving the BAS complex in the raw material and obtaining standard raw materials that meet the requirements of regulatory documentation (RD).

The quality of MPC is primarily determined by the content of biologically active substances in it. The accumulation of these substances in plants has a certain dynamics, and raw materials should be collected in that phase of plant development, when the content of biologically active substances reaches its maximum value. In addition to taking into account the dynamics of the accumulation of biologically active substances, and the conditions of industrial culture, productivity is taken into account, i.e. output of raw materials per unit area. When harvesting raw materials from wild-growing medicinal plants, the possibility of recognizing plants in the herbage is considered, and therefore sometimes the timing of harvesting raw materials is shifted to those phases of development when it is possible to clearly determine the belonging of a plant to a particular species. When collecting raw materials, the change in the content of biologically active substances during the day is also taken into account. For most medicinal plants, the best collection time is between 10 and 13 hours, since at this time the content of biologically active substances in them is maximum. However, in each specific case, the boron time is determined in accordance with

features of a particular medicinal plant. For example, raw materials from plants containing essential oils are recommended to be harvested in the early morning hours. Scientific research and many years of practice make it possible to establish calendar dates for harvesting for each harvested type of raw material, however, they can vary widely depending on the geographical area, weather conditions in different years and other factors, so you should focus primarily on the phase of plant development.

Above-ground parts of plants (grass, leaves, flowers, fruits) should be collected in dry weather, after the dew has evaporated (8-9 am) and before the evening dew appears (before 5 pm), since surface moisture leads to rapid deterioration of raw materials and a decrease in its quality. Underground organs (roots, rhizomes, tubers, etc.) can be collected in any weather and at any time of the day.

It is necessary to collect MPC only from healthy, well-developed, corresponding to the description in color, size and a certain smell, uncontaminated plants, not damaged by insects and microorganisms. When collecting VP from wild medicinal plants, collectors must take care to conserve their resources. Harvesting of one species or another should be carried out only in those areas where this plant forms significant thickets or is often found. The following rules must be observed to guarantee the reproduction of medicinal plants:

 grasses cannot be uprooted, but only cut or mowed, leaving 2-3 plants per 1 m2 for seed maturation;

 leaves should be carefully cut off, keeping some of the old

 leaves and all young leaves for further growth and development of the plant;

 flowers, inflorescences are collected selectively from the plant, leaving a few for the seeds to ripen;

 when harvesting VP on trees, shrubs (leaves, flowers, fruits), branches and trunks should be protected from breakage;

 underground organs must be harvested after ripening and shedding of fruits, young shoots should be protected from perennial plants and mature seeds should be sown in loosened soil. When digging underground organs

leave intact at least one fruit-bearing specimen for every 1-2 m2 of thickets;

 repeated harvesting in this area is possible for underground organs after 5 years or more, for herbs - after 2 years, for leaves, flowers, fruits - annually.

Each morphological group of raw materials has its own rules and features in terms of terms and methods of harvesting. Deviation from these rules leads to a decrease in the quality of raw materials and to an unjustified depletion of medicinal plant resources. Collectors of medicinal raw materials must undergo special training and be familiar with the “Regulations on the Collector of Medicinal Raw Materials”. Collectors and procurers should be instructed on the rules for collecting, drying and safety precautions when working with medicinal plants and equipment. Procurement organizations draw up an agreement with the assembler and issue a certificate for the right to collect. When collecting rare, protected species of plants, a license is issued for the right to limited collection. Of great importance when collecting plants is not only the quality of raw materials, but also the personal hygiene of the picker.

It must be remembered that certain types of medicinal plants, when in contact with them, can cause allergic reactions in some people, cause dermatosis, inflammation of the mucous membranes, headaches, etc. Medicinal plants containing poisonous and potent substances can cause poisoning.

Lecture number 3.

1.3. Rules for the preparation of the main morphological groups of raw materials

Kidneys - Gemmae. The buds are harvested at the end of winter or early spring, when they are swollen, but not started to grow, i.e. are still in the dormant phase. This period does not last long, only a few days, its duration depends on biological and climatic factors. If the buds have already begun to burst and the tops of the leaves have appeared, they are not suitable for harvesting as medicinal raw materials. Harvesting is carried out in places of logging or sanitary felling. Birch buds are harvested by cutting branches, and then, after drying in the open air or in cool, well-ventilated rooms for 3-4 weeks, the buds are pulled or threshed, cleaned of impurities on sieves or winnowers. Pine buds are cut from the top of the branches in the form of "crowns", i.e. several pieces at once with a shoot no more than 3 mm long.

Cortices - Cortices. The bark of trees and shrubs is harvested in the spring during increased sap flow (April - early May). During this period, the bark is easily separated from the wood. To harvest the bark, a permit from the forestry enterprises is required; it is usually combined with forest felling. The bark is collected from young cut or chopped off branches and trunks, having previously been cleared of lichens. With sharp knives, circular cuts are made at a distance of 20-30 cm from one another, connected with one or two longitudinal cuts, and then removed in the form of grooves or tubes. The defect of raw materials is the bark with fruticose lichens on the surface, with the rest of the wood on the inside, moldy, blackened pieces of bark.

Leaves - Folia. The leaves are harvested when they are fully formed, usually in the budding or flowering phase, coinciding with the period of greatest accumulation of active substances. It is not recommended to collect leaves before flowering, since at this time the raw material is defective, in addition, it depletes and weakens the plants. In some cases, the collection of leaves is carried out in accordance with the biology of plants: for example, in coltsfoot, the leaves begin to develop after flowering, in bearberry and lingonberry, the leaves are wintering, they can be collected before flowering in spring. Then new leaves grow on these plants, reaching full development only by autumn, so the second harvest is carried out after fruiting. In some biennial plants that bloom only in the 2nd year, rosette basal leaves are collected in the 1st year of the growing season. The terms of their procurement are indicated in the relevant instructions for the procurement of certain types of medicinal plants.

From leafy shoots, the lower and middle leaves are usually cut off, leaving the upper ones intact. When collecting, do not squeeze the leaf blade with your fingers, which subsequently leads to the formation of dark spots on them. At one time, you can collect from the plant only a third of all

leaves. A plant completely devoid of leaves quickly dies. Collect only leaves of good shape, healthy, not changed in normal color, with or without petioles. Often, when collecting leaves, whole plants or shoots are cut off, and then the leaves are cut off from them. In some cases, leafy shoots are first dried, then the leaves are separated by threshing. Fresh raw materials are transported, laid freely in solid containers, and delivered as quickly as possible to the place of processing or drying.

The defect of raw materials are leaves that have changed their color, damaged by pests, diseases or mold, clogged with mineral and organic impurities. Before drying, defective leaves and foreign plant parts and impurities are removed.

Flowers - Flores. The flowers are harvested in the phase of budding, beginning or full bloom, depending on the requirements of the relevant collection instructions. During this period, the flowers contain more active ingredients, withstand drying better, crumble less during storage and retain their color. The specific dates for the collection of each type of flowers are indicated in the corresponding harvesting instructions.

Flowers are collected by hand (fragrant chamomile, calendula, etc.) or cut with scissors, secateurs, sickles, branch cutters (hawthorn, linden). On plantations, special harvesters are used. Separate flowers, small inflorescences are cut off separately at the base of the pedicel or together with the pedicel. Large inflorescences are cut off entirely. Flowers are the most delicate parts of the plant, so you need to pluck them with a slight movement of your hand, without squeezing the petals, freely place them in a solid container and deliver them to the place of drying or processing as quickly as possible.

The defect of raw materials are flowers collected during the flowering period or in the phase of the beginning of fruit formation, which have changed their natural color with an admixture of pedicels, stems, leaves.

Herbs - Herbae. Herbs are usually harvested in the phase of the beginning of flowering, in some species - in the budding phase (sequence, bitter wormwood), at full bloom or at the end of flowering and before the fruits are shed (spring adonis) or during the fruiting period (marsh rosemary). All above-ground parts of plants are harvested only in dry weather. If there was dew in the morning or it rained, then harvesting begins only after the plants have dried. Plants are cut with knives, scissors, sickles. In large compact thickets, grass can be mowed by first removing foreign plants from the site. Plantations use mowers. It is not recommended to pluck the plants with your hands, as this can pull it out along with the root. In some plants, the entire aerial part is cut off 5-10 cm above the soil surface (lily of the valley, adonis), in others, only flowering tops (yarrow) or side branches (sequence). Sometimes plants (annual plants) are uprooted (sudweed marshwort). The instructions for harvesting the corresponding medicinal plant regulate the length of the herb for each type of raw material, which is usually 15-40 cm. Some herbs (highlander, thyme) are threshed after drying. It is impossible to harvest herbs that are dusty, damaged, lethargic, diseased, have changed their normal color and size. The grass is loosely placed in containers and quickly delivered to the place of processing or drying. The defect of raw materials are lignified and thick parts of the stem, leafless

stems, fruits, parts of other plants, mineral impurities. Before drying, all impurities are removed if possible.

The fruits are Fructus. Depending on the nature of the pericarp - dry (anise, fennel, etc.) and juicy (blueberries, raspberries, etc.) - different methods of harvesting fruits are used.

Juicy fruits are harvested in the full ripening phase, usually by hand, carefully so that the fruits are subjected to less pressure (damaged fruits become moldy quickly). The collection should be carried out in the early morning or evening (when collected during the day, in the heat they quickly deteriorate). Sometimes the fruits are carefully combed with special scoops (blueberries), but this causes significant damage to the thickets, and the raw materials require more careful sorting. Cutting or breaking off branches with rose hips, hawthorn, sea buckthorn, etc. is not allowed. Juicy fruits should not be transferred from one container to another. It is better to collect in small and wide baskets. It is recommended to lay leaves or grass in each layer of 5-7 cm so that the fruits do not cake and do not press on each other. Right there, when harvesting, it is necessary to sort the fruits and in the same container immediately transport them to the place of drying.

Dry fruits (anise and other celery) are harvested when 60-70% of fruits ripen in order to avoid their massive shedding. The aerial part is mowed until the fruits are fully ripe, folded into small piles, and then the already dry sheaves are threshed and the fruits are sifted.

The defect of raw materials is unripe fruits, contamination with other parts of the plant, mineral organic impurities, moldy fruits that have changed their natural color and smell.

Underground organs: roots - Radices, rhizomes - Rhizomata, rhizomes with roots Rhizomata cum radicibus, bulbs - Bulba, tubers - Tureba,

corms - Bulbotubera.

Harvesting is usually carried out in the withering phase in autumn, less often in early spring before the start of the growing season. They dig underground organs with shovels, diggers, pitchforks, on plantations with plows, potato diggers. Creeping rhizomes (bergenia, calamus, zamaniha, etc.) are sometimes pulled out with hands, hooks or hook-shaped grips. After collection, the underground organs are cleaned of the remnants of stems, basal leaves, dead parts of roots and rhizomes, shaken off the ground. Then they are washed by folding loosely into baskets, immersing them in the cold water of a reservoir. Some types of raw materials containing biologically active substances easily soluble in water - mucus, saponins - are washed very quickly (marshmallow, licorice) or cleaned of corks. Raw materials are transferred to the place of drying in baskets, boxes or bags.

The defects of raw materials are impurities of other parts of the plant, moldy raw materials, mineral impurities. Prior to drying, the raw material must be free of impurities.

The collected raw materials must be quickly delivered to the place of drying. The period between collection and drying should not exceed 2-3 hours. During this time, it is necessary to carry out the primary sorting of raw materials. It includes the removal of all randomly collected foreign plants, plant parts that are not medicinal raw materials, mineral impurities, etc. For primary sorting, the raw materials are scattered on a litter and carefully sorted out, removing impurities. At the same time, in accordance with the requirements of the NTD, large

underground organs are cut into pieces (along or across), cleaned of cork, shortened stems, cleaned the outer part of the bark, etc.

Collection of poisonous plants

In medicine, a number of poisonous medicinal plants containing poisonous substances are used, for example, alkaloids - belladonna, dope, henbane, hellebore, celandine; cardiac glycosides - foxglove, lily of the valley, adonis, etc.

If certain rules for harvesting toxic raw materials and working with them are not followed, severe poisoning can occur. For example, if a raw material containing the alkaloid hyoscyamine (datura, henbane, belladonna) is ingested, signs of mental disorders appear; hellebore dust strongly irritates mucous membranes, etc.

When collecting toxic raw materials, the following rules should be observed:

 only adult collectors are involved in the collection after careful instruction;

 pregnant and lactating women should not be allowed to harvest;

 when collecting raw materials, you need to stand with your back to the wind in order to reduce the effect of toxic fumes on the body;

 during work, do not touch the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, eyes with your hands;

 you can not eat, smoke, use cosmetics;

 after work, wash hands and face thoroughly with soap, clean or wash clothes;

 when processing raw materials, respirators or multi-layer moistened gauze bandages should be used;

 harvesting of toxic raw materials should not be combined with other types of medicinal products;

 in case of poisoning, medical attention should be called immediately

The pharmacist should know the basic measures of prevention and first aid in case of poisoning: inducing vomiting, washing the intestines, taking saline laxatives, warm milk, mucous decoctions; the skin and mucous membranes are washed with 1-2% sodium bicarbonate solution.

Cases of poisoning are always the result of a violation of safety regulations when collecting poisonous plants.

Lecture number 4.

Protection and rational use of medicinal plant resources

Medicinal plants make up a relatively small, but extremely important in terms of their social significance, part of the total biological resources of our country. Medicinal plant resources are the totality of plant objects that are used or can be used in medical practice in one form or another.

introduce a regime of successive exploitation of thickets, ensuring their natural renewal, etc.

Technical measures provide for rational, biologically based methods or techniques for collecting plant materials (see "General Rules for the Harvesting of MVP"). After active exploitation of populations of medicinal plants, they are restored only after 3-8 years, and when harvesting underground organs, this occurs after 15-30 years. Unfortunately, unsystematic harvesting is often observed, collection rules are grossly violated, especially for the purpose of private sale of medicinal plants.

The collection of raw materials during the period of maximum accumulation of biologically active substances can also be attributed to the number of protective measures, which significantly affects the quantitative yield of medicinal substances during the processing of raw materials. It is economically important that freshly harvested raw materials do not lose high quality indicators during the drying process. Of great importance are the subsequent technological processes for the processing of raw materials and the production of phytopreparations. The more perfect the processes for obtaining drugs, the more fully the raw materials are used.

Legislative measures are carried out on behalf of the state on the basis of the law on nature protection and are mandatory, and, if necessary, repressive.

Control over compliance with the rules for the procurement of medicinal plant materials should be carried out by local authorities, forestry workers, the nature protection inspectorate, and administrative commissions.

Protective measures include the organization of nature reserves, sanctuaries, and protected natural monuments.

The reserve is a landscape protected by the state, from where human economic activity has been completely removed, where there are valuable objects of nature, including medicinal plants. Any work is prohibited on the territory of the reserve, including the procurement of medicinal raw materials. In the Russian Federation, nature reserves occupy vast areas.

The reserve usually occupies a small area where human economic activity is limited. In the reserves, which are organized at the initiative of the pharmaceutical community, a certain regime is observed in order to preserve medicinal plants. Reserves are of regional or republican subordination, there are about 2000 of them in total.

Lecture number 5.

Topic Drying of medicinal plant materials

Most types of TPC are used in dried form, only some types (onions, garlic, aloe, kolanchoe, etc.) are processed fresh as quickly as possible. Freshly harvested VP is a perishable product, so ensuring that it can be stored for a long time is important. Drying is the most accessible, simple and economical way of conservation of medicinal herbs, * the speed of which depends both on the total moisture content and on the characteristics of the physicochemical properties of biologically active substances. Harvested HR usually contains 70-95%, and dried 10-15% moisture. During the drying process, water is removed, so the terms "drying" and "dehydration" can be considered conditionally identical.

Medicinal plant materials (MPR) are plant materials authorized by an authorized body for the purpose of treating or preventing diseases.

To obtain extraction preparations, as a rule, dried plant materials are used. Fresh plant materials are rarely used.

The quality requirements for medicinal products are formulated in general and particular FS, FSP and GF XI editions. For a number of types of raw materials, technical specifications are normative documents, which is unacceptable and requires revision.

In Russia, more than 200 types of VP are allowed for medical use.

The SP XI edition includes 20 general articles, 13 of which are devoted to general methods of control of MPC, 7-standardization of the quality of individual morphological groups of raw materials: leaves, herbs, flowers, fruits, seeds, bark, roots, rhizomes and other underground organs.

In connection with the release of OST 91599.05.001-00 “Medicine quality standards. Basic Provisions” (01.03.00), all drug manufacturing enterprises must develop a pharmaceutical dosage form (including those for MPC and preparations from it).

Previously approved FS and VFS for plant raw materials are valid until the dates specified in them, after which they must be processed into FSP.

The MPC to be extracted has a cellular structure. MPRS differ in anatomical structure, chemical composition and physical properties. All MPC substances passing into the extractant in the form of a solution are called extractive substances.

Extractives include:

-biologically active substances– substances with pronounced pharmacological activity and of interest from the point of view of the treatment and prevention of diseases (alkaloids, flavonoids, coumarins, vitamins, essential oils, etc.);

With accompanying substances- natural companions of biologically active substances that play an important role in the life of the LR, are not of particular interest from a pharmacotherapeutic point of view, but in one way or another affect the manifestation of the therapeutic effect of biologically active substances.

For example: - mucus, gums - reduce the side effects of biologically active substances and slow down their absorption, due to an increase in viscosity and enveloping action, saponins - increase the absorption of biologically active substances, because are surfactants; tannins - slow down absorption.

- ballast substances- concomitant substances that do not take a significant part in the manifestation of a therapeutic effect.

From a modern biopharmaceutical point of view, there are no ballast substances, because. all substances, one way or another, affect the therapeutic effect of biologically active substances.

There is also no clear boundary between the concepts of biologically active substances and related substances, so in some cases the substances are related, in others. So, tannins are substances that provide wound healing, drying and antiulcer action.

In relation to extractants, i.e. According to the degree of hydrophilicity, biologically active substances can be divided into three groups (Table 1).

Table 1.

Classification of biologically active substances according to the degree of hydrophilicity

As can be seen from the data presented in the table, most biologically active substances are hydrophilic or belong to a mixed group.

Preparation of MPS for extraction

Before carrying out the extraction process, medicinal plant materials are subjected to analysis and preliminary preparation.

1. The composition and properties of raw materials are determined for compliance with the requirements of normative documents.

2. Grinding and sieving is carried out (not always, because it is a very laborious operation)

3. Technological properties of raw materials are determined.

The technological properties of the crushed plant material are determined in order to select the capacity of the equipment, select loading media, calculate the amount of extractant and optimize the extraction process, it is necessary to study the technological properties of the crushed plant material used beforehand.

Basic technological properties of raw materials.

Good quality of raw materials(A) - the ratio of the content of biologically active substances (a) to the amount of extractive substances (c).

Benignity of the drug(A 1) - the ratio of biologically active substances (a) to the dry residue (c).

Relative good quality(C) - the ratio of the good quality of the drug to the good quality of raw materials.

Fractional composition (crushing of raw materials). In technological studies, fineness is determined using sieve analysis and is expressed as a % of fractions of different fineness.

The degree of grinding of raw materials (n) is estimated by the ratio of the diameter of the largest particles before grinding (D) to the diameter of the largest particles after grinding (d).

Leaves, flowers, herbs - 3-5 mm;

Roots, fruits, bark - 1-3 mm;

Fruits, seeds - 0.3-0.5 mm.

In industrial conditions, these values ​​\u200b\u200bare rarely followed. The optimal grinding of each specific type of raw material is chosen experimentally. In order to assess the homogeneity of the raw material, its fractional composition is determined. The crushing of raw materials is of great importance, because. with its increase, the mass transfer surface increases during extraction.

Absorption coefficient- the ratio of the mass of raw materials after swelling to the mass of raw materials before swelling.

The absorption coefficient (KP) is used when calculating the amount of extractant absorbed by the raw material and the subsequent determination of the volume or mass of the poured extractant. The absorption coefficient characterizes the swelling of the raw material.

Washout coefficient. During the extraction of VP, two processes occur:

Dissolution and rapid leaching of substances from destroyed cells (rapid extraction period);

Slow diffusion of biologically active substances from intact cells (period of slow extraction).

The washout coefficient characterizes the amount of substances washed out from the destroyed cells and determines the period of rapid extraction. Most often, it is determined by a graphic-analytical method (by analyzing the depletion of raw materials from the time of extraction).

Raw material porosity- the size of the voids inside the plant tissue. Determines the hydrodynamic resistance of vegetable raw materials during extraction. The porosity of the layer of the extracted raw material consists of the internal microporosity of the particles and the external microporosity of the volume between the particles. When solving hydrodynamic issues, the microporosity of the particles is not taken into account, because the liquid moves mainly along the channel between the particles.

Рв \u003d (d y -d 0) / d y;

d y is the relative density (the ratio of the density of the walls of the raw material to the density of water);

d 0 - volumetric weight (the ratio of the mass of the dried raw material to its volume).

Porosity is directly proportional to the amount of internal juice.

Raw material porosity- determines the size of voids between pieces of plant material and characterizes the amount of internal juice. It is the most important characteristic in solving hydrodynamic issues, because the fluid moves mainly along the channel between the cells.

Pm \u003d (d 0 - d n) / d 0;

d 0 - volumetric mass;

d n - bulk mass (a certain volume of a weighed portion of the material) - is different for raw materials of various fineness and various degrees of compaction.

Extractants

A variety of extractants are used to extract biologically active substances from VP. Extractants are solvents used for extracting plant or biological material, or extracting certain valuable substances from liquids.

The requirements for extractants are as follows:

1. Selective solubility (i.e. the maximum extraction of biologically active substances and the minimum extraction of ballast substances).

2. Good wettability of raw materials, desorbing properties, high diffusion ability, providing penetration into the material.

3. Microbiological resistance.

4. Indifference to extracted substances.

5. Pharmacological indifference.

6. Volatility, at a relatively low boiling point.

7. Easy regenerate.

8. Non-flammable.

9. Ability not to form combustible mixtures with air.

10. Availability and cheapness.

There is no ideal extractant, therefore, a significant number of liquids are used as extractants, which are divided into groups presented in table 2:

table 2

Classification of extractants according to the degree of polarity

When choosing an extractant, they are guided by the well-known rule “like dissolves like”. When comparing the data presented in tables 1 and 2, it can be concluded that the substances of the hydrophilic group are highly soluble in polar solvents, the substances of the mixed group - in low-polar solvents, and the lipophilic substances in non-polar solvents.

The extractant affects not only the amount of extracted BAS, but also the total amount of extracted extractives. Most substances in plants are hydrophilic, so polar solvents extract more extractives.

Water-ethanol mixtures are most often used as an extractant. The dielectric constant of water-ethanol mixtures and, consequently, its extracting ability with respect to various groups of biologically active substances depends on the concentration (i.e., on the ethanol content, which allows such mixtures to extract a larger range of substances).

Purified water

Purified water as an extractant has the following advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages:

1. Extracts a large amount of biologically active substances (salts of alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, tannins, mucus, etc.).

2. Penetrates well enough through cell membranes (not impregnated with lipophilic substances).

3. Pharmacologically indifferent.

4. Availability and cheapness.

5. Not combustible.

Disadvantages:

1. Subject to microbial contamination.

2. It is a frequent cause of biologically active substances hydrolysis.

3. It has a rather high boiling point, and therefore, it is removed only under vacuum.

Ethyl alcohol (ethanol)

In pharmacy, as independent extractants and in the manufacture of complex extractants, it is allowed to use:

Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) (FS 42-3072-94);

Rectified ethyl alcohol (GOST 5962-67).

Ethyl alcohol as an extractant has its advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages:

1. Well dissolves medicinal substances, which are rather poorly soluble in water.

2. To a lesser extent, in comparison with water, it contributes to the flow of hydrolytic processes (depends on the concentration of ethanol).

3. Inactivates many enzymes.

4. Has a bactericidal effect.

5. Sufficiently volatile, has a boiling point ranging from 88.5-78.8 with a change in concentration from 20 to 90%, which allows you to save heat-labile substances during evaporation and drying.

Disadvantages:

1. Harder than water to penetrate cell walls.

2. Flammable (requires special working conditions).

3. Pharmacological indifference.

Obtaining, rectification, ways of expressing and determining the concentration of ethanol, see the methodological instructions of the department

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS OF MEDICINAL PLANTS (MP) AND MEDICINAL HERBAL MATERIALS (MP) Botanical - phylogenetic classification with binary names of plants. Alphabetically - in dictionaries, encyclopedias, reference books. Morphological - based on the names of those organs or parts of plants that are used as MPC. Grass(s) – Herba (herbae) Flowers – Flores Leaf (leaves) – Folium (folia) Fruits – Fructus Bark (barks) – Cortex (Cortices) Root(s) – Radix (Radices) Rhizome(s) – Rhizoma ( Rhizomata)

Pharmacological - based on the pharmacological action of a substance or mixture of substances in a drug or MPC. Chemical - according to the main biologically active substances that are contained in medicinal raw materials: MP and MPRM containing carbohydrates lipids vitamins terpenoids glycosides alkaloids phenolic compounds and their glycosides

ABOUT THE BASICS OF THE PREPARATION PROCESS MRS Buds are harvested at the end of winter or early spring Bark - during sap flow, before the leaves bloom Leaves - in the budding - flowering phase Flowers - at the beginning or at full bloom Herbs - during flowering, sometimes at the beginning (sequence, wormwood bitter, lily of the valley) or at the end (spring adonis), or during the fruiting period (marsh rosemary) Fruits, seeds are usually harvested when mature Underground organs (roots, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs) are usually harvested in autumn, less often in spring before the start of vegetation HERBS, FLOWERS, LEAVES - UP TO 2-3 YEARS; BARK, ROOMS - UP TO 4 YEARS.

WITH EYE LRS Up to humidity (20)% WITHOUT ARTIFICIAL HEATING: A) AIR - SHADOW - UNDER SHEDS, DRYERS, LOFTS RAW CONTAINING TANNING B - BA). LEAVES, FLOWERS AND HERBS DRY ONLY IN THE SHADE. WITH ARTIFICIAL HEATING, OR THERMAL (PROVIDES FAST DEHYDRATION OF RAW MATERIALS). A) CONVECTIVE B) RADIATION (USING INFRARED RAYS) C) USING MICROWAVE OVENS

Raw Material Drying Modes 1. RAW MATERIALS CONTAINING ESSENTIAL OILS ARE DRIED AT T 0 = (40 0) IN A QUITE THICK LAYER OF CM TO REDUCE EVAPORATION OF THE ESSENTIAL OIL. 2. RAW MATERIAL CONTAINING GLYCOSIDES - AT T 0 = RAW MATERIAL CONTAINING ALKALOIDS - AT T 0 TO RAW MATERIAL CONTAINING ASCORBIC ACID - AT T 0 = P FOR ALL DRYING METHODS SOME TYPES OF RAW MATERIALS ARE DRIED ACCORDING TO INDIVIDUAL REGIMES (HAWTHORN FRUITS, GINSENG ROOTS, MAY LILY OF THE VALLEY GRASS).

Packaging of raw materials FABRIC OR PAPER BAGS, PAPER BAGS, P/ET BAGS, FABRIC BALE, CARDBOARD OR WOODEN BOXES. T ARU MARK. THE LABEL INDICATES: NAME OF THE ENTERPRISE - SENDER, NAME OF MPS, ITS QUANTITY, PREPARING TIME, BATCH NUMBER, NTD FOR RAW MATERIALS.

Normative and technical documentation (NTD) GOST - state standard pharmacopoeial articles (FS) temporary pharmacopoeial articles (VFS) State Pharmacopoeia (since 1778) State Pharmacopoeia of the Republic of Belarus, in 3 t.

Structure and content of pharmacopoeial monographs External signs - a brief description of the morphological characteristics of raw materials, color, taste, smell, etc.; for raw materials that belong to list A, the taste is not determined. Crushed raw materials - particle sizes of raw materials are given. Microscopy - diagnostic features of raw materials are given. Qualitative reactions to the main active substances - microchemical reactions, chromatography are given. Numerical indicators - norms for the percentage of active substances, moisture, ash, organic and mineral impurities, etc. Control methods, packaging, labeling, transportation, storage, shelf life, main pharmacological action.

GEMMAE PINI pine buds GEMMAE PINI SILVESTRIS Collected in late winter or early spring before blooming and dried buds of Scotch pine Pinus silvestris L., fam. pine - Рinaceae. External signs. Buds (short apical shoots) are single or several in whorls surrounding a larger central bud, without a stem or with a stem remnant, no more than 3 mm long. The surface of the kidneys is covered with dry, spirally arranged lanceolate, pointed fringed scales, glued together by protruding resin. The color is pinkish-brown on the outside, green or brown in the break. The length of the kidneys is 1-4 cm. The smell is fragrant, resinous. The taste is bitter. Microscopy. When examining the scale under a microscope from the surface, in its central part one can see tracheids with slit-like pores and pointed ends and two resin ducts running from the base of the scale to its top. The peripheral part of the scale consists of strongly elongated parenchymal cells, the ends of which are often bent towards the base of the scale, sometimes they end freely and form a fringed edge of the scale.

Numerical indicators. Essential oil not less than 0.3%; humidity not more than 13%; total ash no more than 2%; kidneys, blackened inside, no more than 10%; buds with a stem longer than 3 mm and overgrown no more than 10%; needles not more than 0.5%; crushed particles passing through a sieve with holes with a diameter of 3 mm, not more than 5%; organic impurities not more than 0.5%; mineral impurity not more than 0.5%. Quantitation. The content of essential oil is determined in 20 g of coarsely ground (without sieving) raw materials by method 1 (SP XI, issue 1, p. 290). Distillation time 1.5 hours. Packing. Raw materials are packed in fabric or flax-jute-kenaf bags no more than 25 kg net or in boxes of sheet wood materials no more than 25 kg net. Pine buds are packed in 100 g cardboard packs. Shelf life is 2 years. Expectorant.

Pharmacognostic analysis shows the authenticity and good quality of MPS. Authenticity is the conformity of the raw material to the name under which it was submitted for analysis, as well as the determination of whether the raw material belongs to the corresponding type of producing plant. The good quality of the MPC is determined by its purity, standard humidity and ash content, the absence of mold and barn pests; it must contain the required amount of the active substance.

Commodity analysis is a section of pharmacognostic analysis that includes the acceptance of raw materials, sampling and their analysis for various indicators. ash and biologically active substances.

The authenticity of raw materials is determined by a set of methods using macro- and microscopic analysis. Macroscopic analysis is an analysis by morphological features: in appearance, color, size, odors and taste (organoleptic analysis). Microscopic analysis is based on determining the signs of the anatomical structure. Phytochemical analysis - qualitative and quantitative.

KA Reagent for starch - Lugol's solution. Gives a blue-violet coloration with starch. Reagent for low-fat and fatty oils - Sudan III. When slightly heated, the drops of oils turn yellow-red. In the same way, but somewhat more slowly, resins, cuticles, milky passages and cork are stained. Reagents for mucus - a) a mixture of black ink (1 part) and water (9 parts). The powder is stirred in a drop of ink, whitish lumps of mucus stand out against a gray background. b) methylene blue - stains mucus blue. c) KOH solution - stains the mucus yellow.

Qualitative reactions Lignified cell reagent (lignin) - 1% phloroglucinol solution with HCI (strong) gives lignified cells a red color. Reagents for anthracene derivatives - a 3-5% solution of NaOH, or KOH, gives a cherry-red color for anthraquinone derivatives, as well as a yellow color for anthrone and anthranol derivatives. Reagent for tannins - 1% solution of iron ammonium alum or 1% solution of FeCI 3 give a greenish-black color. Reaction to saponins - when shaken with water, foam forms; causes hemolysis of erythrocytes on a gelatinous blood plate. Reaction to alkaloids - a solution of iodine in potassium iodide causes the formation of a precipitate.

Biological analysis is carried out when evaluating the activity of LR and preparations containing cardiac glycosides. The biological evaluation of the mentioned raw materials is based on the ability of cardiac glycosides to cause systolic cardiac arrest in animals (frogs, pigeons, cats) in toxic doses. Expressed in units of action: 1LED, 1GED and 1KED

Medicinal plants are used in medical practice in fresh or dried form. Juices, infusions and decoctions are prepared from fresh plants, sometimes individual parts of plants are applied to the affected area of ​​the body. Fresh plants have a stronger therapeutic effect, since in the process of drying the raw materials, part of the biologically active substances is destroyed.

In medical practice, dried and crushed medicinal plants are most often used. The simplest dosage form is powders, which are obtained by grinding medicinal plants in a mortar or grinding in a coffee grinder. They are used orally in the form of pills, applied to wounds, cuts, ulcers.

Most often, dried plants are prepared infusions and decoctions, which are aqueous extracts from medicinal plant materials. For the preparation of infusions and decoctions, medicinal plants are crushed to certain sizes: leaves, flowers and herbs - to particles no larger than 5 mm in size (leathery leaves, such as bearberry leaves, no more than 1 mm); stem, bark, rhizomes, roots - no more than 3 mm; fruits and seeds - no more than 0.5 mm. The crushed medicinal plant material is placed in a porcelain, enameled vessel or in a stainless steel vessel, poured with water at room temperature, closed with a lid and heated in a boiling water bath with frequent stirring: infusions - for 15 minutes, decoctions - 30 minutes. Then the vessel is removed from the water bath and cooled at room temperature: infusions - at least 45 minutes, decoction - 10 minutes, after which they are filtered, the rest of the raw material is squeezed out and water is added to the finished extract to the prescribed volume. Decoctions from bearberry leaves, oak bark, serpentine rhizomes and other medicinal raw materials containing tannins are filtered immediately after removal from the water bath; decoctions of senna leaves - after complete cooling.

Usually, all aqueous extracts from medicinal plants are prepared in a ratio of 1:10, i.e. from 1 part of the mass of crushed raw materials, 10 parts of infusion or decoction are obtained. Infusions and decoctions from ergot, herb adonis, herbs, from rhizome with valerian roots are prepared in a ratio of 1:30, and from vegetable raw materials of the potent group - 1:400.

In the manufacture of infusions and decoctions, plant materials absorb part of the liquid, and therefore it is necessary to take a little more water than indicated in the recipe. When preparing aqueous extracts from the roots, one should additionally take 1.5 times more water in relation to the mass of raw materials, about 2 times more from bark, grass and flowers, and 3 times more from seeds. However, there are exceptions to the rule; so, an infusion of unpeeled rose hips is prepared in a ratio of 1:20 and the infusion time is increased to 22-24 hours, the same infusion of peeled fruits is infused for 2-3 hours. Store infusions and decoctions in a cool place, preferably in the refrigerator, but not more than 2 days.

On packages of medicinal plant raw materials dispensed from pharmacies, the dosage of raw materials is sometimes indicated not in grams, but in tablespoons. The mass of a tablespoon of raw materials from dried and crushed leaves, herbs and flowers is on average 3-5 g, from the bark and roots - about 10 g. The mass of a teaspoon of infusion and decoction is on average 5 g, a tablespoon - 10 g. It should be noted that that in all prescriptions the dosage is indicated for adults. For use in pediatric practice, the dose should be reduced. For children from 1 to 3 years old, it is 1/6 of the adult dose, from 4 to 7 years old - 1/4-1/3; from 7 to 12 years old - 1/3-1/2; from 13 to 20 years - 2/3 of the adult dose.

Currently, for the preparation of infusions and decoctions at home, dosed tablets and briquettes made by pressing crushed medicinal plant materials. To do this, take a tablet or a slice of a briquette containing a certain amount of raw material for one-time use.

In addition to pharmacies, a significant part of medicinal plant raw materials is supplied to pharmaceutical factories and chemical-pharmaceutical plants. In factories, tinctures, extracts, aromatic waters, and novogalenic preparations are prepared from plant materials.

Tinctures- these are transparent water-alcohol or alcohol extracts from medicinal plant materials, obtained by various methods of infusion of raw materials with solvents without heating and removing the solvent. They are prepared using 70% ethyl alcohol for the extraction of raw materials, less often 40% alcohol, and extremely rarely 90 and 95% alcohol. When preparing tinctures from non-potent raw materials, 5 parts of tincture are obtained from 1 part of the mass of vegetable raw materials. In the preparation of potent tinctures, the ratio of raw materials and the finished product is 1:10.

In medical practice, tinctures are used as independent preparations for internal and external use; in addition, they are part of mixtures, drops, ointments and plasters.

extracts are concentrated extracts from plant materials. According to the consistency, liquid and thick extracts are distinguished - viscous masses with a moisture content of not more than 25%, as well as dry extracts - loose masses with a moisture content of not more than 5%. As solvents for the preparation of extracts, water, alcohol of various concentrations, ether, oils, and other extractants are used.

Extracts are prepared by various methods of infusion of raw materials with solvents. In the manufacture of liquid extracts from 1 part of the mass of plant materials, 1 or 2 parts of the extract are obtained. The extracts obtained stand for several days to be freed from ballast substances at a temperature not exceeding 8 ° C, followed by filtration. Thick and dry extracts are also freed from ballast substances by precipitation with alcohol, the use of adsorbents (kaolin), boiling the extract, and other methods. The cleaned extracts are concentrated under vacuum. Dry extracts are diluted with milk sugar, dextrin or other indifferent substances. The concentration of biologically active substances in thick and dry extracts is several times higher than in the feedstock.

Liquid, thick and dry extracts are used as an independent drug, as well as in combination with other drugs for the manufacture of various dosage forms.

Fragrant waters- These are transparent liquids obtained by distillation of essential oil plant raw materials with water vapor. From 1 part of the raw material, 10 parts of distillate are obtained. Aromatic waters are used to correct the taste and aromatization of various medicines, as well as an independent medicine.

Novogalenic (neogalenic) preparations- these are extracts from plant raw materials that are maximally purified from ballast substances, containing in their composition the whole complex of biologically active substances of plants. The absence of ballast substances increases the shelf life of Novogalenic preparations, reduces side, harmful effects and allows them to be used for injections.

Medicinal plant raw materials are supplied to chemical and pharmaceutical plants, where individual components are isolated from it using various methods of extraction and purification. Among them are alkaloids: atropine, platifillin, morphine, ephedrine, berberine; cardiac glycosides: digoxin, strophanthin, convallatoxin; flavonoids: rutin, etc.

Widespread in medical practice are fees(teas), which are mixtures of several types of crushed, less often whole plant raw materials, sometimes with an admixture of mineral salts, essential oils, etc. The raw materials included in the collection are ground separately. Leaves, herbs and bark are cut; the leathery leaves are made into a coarse powder; roots and rhizomes are cut or crushed, fruits and seeds are passed through rollers or mills; some fruits (berries) and flowers are left whole. The crushed raw materials are screened from dust and thoroughly mixed to obtain a homogeneous mixture. From the fees prepare infusions and decoctions.

Medicinal plant materials- vegetable raw materials permitted by the authorized body in accordance with the established procedure for medical use.

Types of vegetable raw materials

Vegetable raw materials are used in fresh and dried form.

• Roots (Radices) - MPRS, in pharmaceutical practice, which is whole or in pieces, dried, less often fresh, peeled or washed from the ground, freed from other parts of the plant, roots collected in early spring or late autumn.

• Rhizomes (Rizomata) - MPRS, in pharmaceutical practice, which is whole or in pieces, dried, less often fresh, peeled or washed from the ground, freed from other parts of the plant, rhizomes collected in early spring or late autumn.

• Rhizomes with roots (Rizomata cum radicibus) - MPRS, in pharmaceutical practice, which is whole or in pieces, dried, less often fresh, peeled or washed from the ground, freed from other parts of the plant, collected in early spring or late autumn rhizomes, with rhizomes extending from them roots.

• Rhizomes and roots (Rizomata et radices) - MPRS, in pharmaceutical practice, which is whole or in pieces, dried, less often fresh, peeled or washed from the ground, freed from other parts of the plant, collected in early spring or late autumn, rhizomes and roots separated from each other from friend.

• Tubers (Bulba)

• Bulbs(Tubera)

• Corms (Bulbotubera)

• Grass (Herba) - MPRS, in pharmaceutical practice, which is a dried, less often fresh, above-ground part of herbaceous plants collected in the flowering phase, freed from underground organs.

• Shoots (Cormus) - MPRS, in pharmaceutical practice, which is dried, less often fresh, young shoots of trees and shrubs collected in the flowering phase.

• Leaves (Folia) - MPRS, in pharmaceutical practice, which is dried, less often fresh, leaves collected in the flowering phase.

• Flowers (Flores) - MPRS, in pharmaceutical practice, which is dried, less often fresh inflorescences or individual flowers.

• buds

• Kidneys (Gemma)

• Bark (Cortex) - MPRS, in pharmaceutical practice, which is dried, less often fresh pieces of bark, harvested in early spring.

• Fruits (Fructus)

• Whole plant - traditionally used in homeopathy

Procurement of vegetable raw materials

• underground organs.

Usually harvested in autumn or early spring.

Exceptions:

The cinquefoil is erect (it is impossible to find a plant without the aerial part, therefore it is harvested at the end of summer).

• Grass and run.

Harvest in the flowering phase.

Exceptions:

Marsh rosemary (during flowering, it is dangerous to collect for life and health).

• Flowers are in the flowering phase.

• Buds - in the budding phase.

• Fruits and seedlings - during the fruiting period.

• Buds - in early spring.

• Bark - in the phase of sap flow (in early spring).

Literature

• Muravieva D.A., Samylina I.A. and others. "Pharmacognosy", "Medicine", Moscow, 2002
• State Pharmacopoeia, X׀ Edition, Issue 1

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See what "Medicinal plant materials" are in other dictionaries:

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GOST 24027.0(80) Medicinal vegetable raw materials. Acceptance rules and sampling methods. OKS: 11.120.10 KGS: R69 Test methods. Package. Marking Replaces: GOST 6076 74 in terms of acceptance rules and sampling methods Action: From 01.01.81… … Directory of GOSTs

GOST 24027.1(80) Medicinal vegetable raw materials. Methods for determining authenticity, infestation with granary pests, fineness and impurity content. OKS: 11.120.10 KGS: R69 Test methods. Package. Marking Instead: GOST 6076 74 in ... ... Directory of GOSTs

GOST 24027.2(80) Medicinal vegetable raw materials. Methods for determining moisture, ash content, extractive and tannins, essential oils. OKS: 11.120.10 KGS: R69 Test methods. Package. Marking Instead: GOST 6076 74 in part ... ... Directory of GOSTs

GOST 6077(80) Medicinal vegetable raw materials. Packing, marking, transportation and storage. OKS: 11.120.10 KGS: R69 Test methods. Package. Marking Replaced by: GOST 6077 74 Effective: From 07/01/80 Note: see Sat. Medicinal ... ... Directory of GOSTs

Books

• Pharmacognosy. Textbook, Zhokhova Elena Vladimirovna, Goncharov Mikhail Yurievich, Povydysh Maria Nikolaevna, Derenchuk Svetlana Viktorovna. The textbook is compiled taking into account the modern requirements of the 3rd generation Federal State Educational Standard for Professional Education in Pharmacognosy. Contains all…
• Pharmacognosy. Atlas. Tutorial. In 3 volumes. Volume 3: Medicinal plant materials, fees. vegetable powders. Medicinal products based on crushed plant materials. Grif UMO, Samylina I.A. The third volume of this atlas is devoted to the issues of determining the authenticity of crushed medicinal plant materials of various dispersions, both in monopreparations and in collections, tablets, ...