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When the inconspicuous beige-painted door opened, only a few wooden steps caught my eye out of the darkness. Immediately behind the door, a powerful wooden box resembling a ventilation box goes up. “Careful, this is an organ pipe, 32 feet, bass flute register,” my guide warned. "Wait, I'll turn on the light." I patiently wait, anticipating one of the most interesting excursions in my life. In front of me is the entrance to the organ. This is the only musical instrument you can go inside.

The body is over a hundred years old. It stands in the Great Hall of the Moscow Conservatory, the very famous hall, from the walls of which portraits of Bach, Tchaikovsky, Mozart, Beethoven are looking at you ... However, all that is open to the viewer's eye is the organist's console turned to the hall with its back side and a slightly artsy wooden " Prospect" with vertical metal pipes. Watching the facade of the organ, the uninitiated will not understand how and why this unique instrument plays. To reveal its secrets, you will have to approach the issue from a different angle. Literally.

Natalya Vladimirovna Malina, the curator of the organ, teacher, musician and organ master, kindly agreed to become my guide. “You can only move forward in the organ,” she explains sternly to me. This requirement has nothing to do with mysticism and superstition: simply, moving backward or sideways, an inexperienced person can step on one of the organ pipes or touch it. And there are thousands of pipes.

The main principle of the organ, which distinguishes it from most wind instruments: one pipe - one note. Pan's flute can be considered an ancient ancestor of the organ. This instrument, which has existed since time immemorial in different parts of the world, consists of several hollow reeds of different lengths tied together. If you blow at an angle at the mouth of the shortest one, a thin high-pitched sound will be heard. Longer reeds sound lower.

A funny instrument is a harmonica with unusual trumpets for this instrument. But almost exactly the same design can be found in any large organ (like the one shown in the picture on the right) - this is how “reed” organ pipes are arranged

The sound of three thousand trumpets. General scheme The diagram shows a simplified diagram of an organ with a mechanical tracture. Photographs showing individual components and devices of the instrument were taken inside the organ of the Great Hall of the Moscow State Conservatory. The diagram does not show the bellows, which maintains constant pressure in the windlid, and the Barker levers (they are in the pictures). Also missing is a pedal (foot keyboard)

Unlike an ordinary flute, you cannot change the pitch of an individual tube, so Pan's flute can play exactly as many notes as there are reeds in it. To make the instrument produce very low sounds, it is necessary to include tubes of great length and large diameter in its composition. It is possible to make many Pan flutes with pipes of different materials and different diameters, and then they will blow the same notes with different timbres. But playing all these instruments at the same time will not work - you cannot hold them in your hands, and there will not be enough breath for giant "reeds". But if we put all our flutes vertically, provide each individual tube with an air inlet valve, come up with a mechanism that would give us the ability to control all the valves from the keyboard and, finally, create a design for pumping air with its subsequent distribution, we have just get an organ.

On an old ship

Pipes in organs are made of two materials: wood and metal. Wooden pipes used to extract bass sounds have a square section. Metal pipes are usually smaller, they are cylindrical or conical in shape and are usually made from an alloy of tin and lead. If there is more tin, the pipe is louder, if there is more lead, the extracted sound is more deaf, “cotton”.

The alloy of tin and lead is very soft, which is why organ pipes are easily deformed. If a large metal pipe is laid on its side, after a while it will acquire an oval section under its own weight, which will inevitably affect its ability to extract sound. Moving inside the organ of the Great Hall of the Moscow Conservatory, I try to touch only the wooden parts. If you step on a pipe or awkwardly grab it, the organ master will have new troubles: the pipe will have to be “healed” - straightened, or even soldered.

The organ I am inside is far from being the largest in the world and even in Russia. In terms of size and number of pipes, it is inferior to the organs of the Moscow House of Music, the Cathedral in Kaliningrad and the Concert Hall. Tchaikovsky. The main record holders are overseas: for example, the instrument installed in the Atlantic City Convention Hall (USA) has more than 33,000 pipes. In the organ of the Great Hall of the Conservatory, there are ten times fewer pipes, "only" 3136, but even this significant number cannot be placed compactly on one plane. The organ inside is several tiers on which pipes are installed in rows. For the organ master's access to the pipes, a narrow passage in the form of a plank platform was made on each tier. The tiers are interconnected by stairs, in which the role of the steps is performed by ordinary crossbeams. Inside the organ is crowded, and movement between tiers requires a certain dexterity.

“My experience is that,” says Natalya Vladimirovna Malina, “it is best for an organ master to be thin and light in weight. It is difficult for a person with other dimensions to work here without damaging the instrument. Recently, an electrician - a heavyset man - was changing a light bulb over an organ, stumbled and broke a couple of planks from the plank roof. There were no casualties or injuries, but the fallen planks damaged 30 organ pipes.”

Mentally estimating that a pair of organ masters of ideal proportions would easily fit in my body, I cautiously glance at the flimsy-looking stairs leading to the upper tiers. “Don't worry,” Natalya Vladimirovna reassures me, “just go forward and repeat the movements after me. The structure is strong, it will withstand you.

Whistle and reed

We climb to the upper tier of the organ, from where a view of the Great Hall from the top point, which is inaccessible to a simple visitor to the conservatory, opens up. On the stage below, where the rehearsal of the string ensemble has just ended, little men walk around with violins and violas. Natalya Vladimirovna shows me the Spanish registers near the chimney. Unlike other pipes, they are not vertical, but horizontal. Forming a kind of visor over the organ, they blow directly into the hall. The creator of the organ of the Great Hall, Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, came from a Franco-Spanish family of organ masters. Hence the Pyrenean traditions in the instrument on Bolshaya Nikitskaya Street in Moscow.

By the way, about Spanish registers and registers in general. "Register" is one of the key concepts in the design of the organ. This is a series of organ pipes of a certain diameter, forming a chromatic scale according to the keys of their keyboard or part of it.

Depending on the scale of the pipes included in them (the scale is the ratio of the pipe parameters that are most important for the character and sound quality), the registers give a sound with a different timbre color. Carried away by comparisons with the Pan flute, I almost missed one subtlety: the fact is that not all organ pipes (like the reeds of an old flute) are aerophones. An aerophone is a wind instrument in which the sound is formed as a result of the vibrations of a column of air. These include flute, trumpet, tuba, horn. But the saxophone, oboe, harmonica are in the group of idiophones, that is, "self-sounding". It is not the air that oscillates here, but the tongue streamlined by the flow of air. Air pressure and elastic force, counteracting, cause the reed to tremble and spread sound waves, which are amplified by the bell of the instrument as a resonator.

Most of the pipes in the organ are aerophones. They are called labial, or whistling. Idiophone pipes constitute a special group of registers and are called reed pipes.

How many hands does an organist have?

But how does a musician manage to make all these thousands of pipes - wooden and metal, whistle and reed, open and closed - tens or hundreds of registers ... sound at the right time? To understand this, let's go down for a while from the upper tier of the organ and go to the pulpit, or the organist's console. The uninitiated at the sight of this device is trembling as before the dashboard of a modern airliner. Several manual keyboards - manuals (there may be five or even seven!), One foot plus some other mysterious pedals. There are also many exhaust levers with inscriptions on the handles. What is this all for?

Of course, the organist has only two hands, and he will not be able to play all the manuals at the same time (there are three of them in the organ of the Great Hall, which is also quite a lot). Several manual keyboards are needed in order to mechanically and functionally separate groups of registers, just as in a computer one physical hard drive is divided into several virtual ones. So, for example, the first manual of the Great Hall organ controls the pipes of a group (the German term is Werk) of registers called the Grand Orgue. It includes 14 registers. The second manual (Positif Expressif) is also responsible for 14 registers. The third keyboard - Recit expressif - 12 registers. Finally, the 32-key footswitch, or "pedal", works with ten bass registers.

Arguing from the point of view of a layman, even 14 registers for one keyboard is somehow too much. After all, by pressing one key, the organist is able to make 14 pipes sound at once in different registers (actually more because of registers like mixtura). And if you need to play a note in just one register or in a few selected ones? For this purpose, the exhaust levers located to the right and left of the manuals are actually used. Pulling out the lever with the name of the register written on the handle, the musician opens a kind of damper that opens the air to the pipes of a certain register.

So, in order to play the desired note in the desired register, you need to select the manual or pedal keyboard that controls this register, pull out the lever corresponding to this register and press the desired key.

Powerful breath

The final part of our tour is dedicated to the air. The very air that makes the organ sound. Together with Natalya Vladimirovna, we go down to the floor below and find ourselves in a spacious technical room, where there is nothing from the solemn mood of the Great Hall. Concrete floors, whitewashed walls, arched timber support structures, air ducts and an electric motor. In the first decade of the organ's existence, calcante rockers worked hard here. Four healthy men stood in a row, grabbed with both hands a stick threaded through a steel ring on the counter, and alternately, with one foot or the other, pressed on the levers that inflated the fur. The shift was scheduled for two hours. If the concert or rehearsal lasted longer, the tired rockers were replaced by fresh reinforcements.

Old furs, four in number, have survived to this day. According to Natalya Vladimirovna, there is a legend around the conservatory that once they tried to replace the work of rockers with horse power. For this, a special mechanism was allegedly even created. However, along with the air, the smell of horse manure rose into the Great Hall, and the founder of the Russian organ school A.F. Gedike, taking the first chord, moved his nose in displeasure and said: “It stinks!”

Whether this legend is true or not, in 1913 the electric motor finally replaced muscle strength. With the help of a pulley, he spun the shaft, which in turn set the bellows in motion through the crank mechanism. Subsequently, this scheme was also abandoned, and today an electric fan pumps air into the organ.

In the organ, the forced air enters the so-called magazine bellows, each of which is connected to one of the 12 windlads. Windlada is a compressed air tank that looks like a wooden box, on which, in fact, rows of pipes are installed. On one windlad, several registers are usually placed. Large pipes, which do not have enough space on the windlad, are installed to the side, and an air duct in the form of a metal tube connects them to the windlad.

The windlads of the organ of the Great Hall (the “loopflade” design) are divided into two main parts. In the lower part, with the help of magazine fur, constant pressure is maintained. The top is divided by airtight partitions into so-called tone channels. All pipes of different registers, controlled by one key of the manual or pedal, have an output to the tone channel. Each tone channel is connected to the bottom of the windlad by a hole closed by a spring-loaded valve. When a key is pressed through the tracture, the movement is transmitted to the valve, it opens, and the compressed air enters upward into the tone channel. All pipes that have access to this channel, in theory, should start to sound, but ... this, as a rule, does not happen. The fact is that so-called loops pass through the entire upper part of the windlad - dampers with holes located perpendicular to the tone channels and having two positions. In one of them, the loops completely cover all the pipes of a given register in all tone channels. In the other, the register is open, and its pipes begin to sound as soon as, after pressing a key, air enters the corresponding tone channel. The control of the loops, as you might guess, is carried out by levers on the remote control through the register path. Simply put, the keys allow all pipes to sound in their tone channels, and the loops determine the favorites.

We thank the leadership of the Moscow State Conservatory and Natalya Vladimirovna Malina for their help in preparing this article.

Source: « In the world of science » , No. 3, 1983. Authors: Neville H. Fletcher and Susanna Thwaites

The majestic sound of the organ is created due to the interaction of strictly phase-synchronized air jet passing through the cut in the pipe and the air column resonating in its cavity.

No musical instrument can compare with the organ in terms of power, timbre, range, tonality and majesty of sound. Like many musical instruments, the structure of the organ has been constantly improved through the efforts of many generations of skilled craftsmen who slowly accumulated experience and knowledge. By the end of the XVII century. the body basically acquired its modern form. The two most prominent physicists of the 19th century. Hermann von Helmholtz and Lord Rayleigh put forward opposing theories explaining the basic mechanism for the formation of sounds in organ pipes, but due to the lack of necessary instruments and tools, their dispute was never resolved. With the advent of oscilloscopes and other modern instruments, it became possible to study in detail the mechanism of action of an organ. It turned out that both the Helmholtz theory and the Rayleigh theory are valid for certain pressures under which air is forced into the organ pipe. Further in the article, the results of recent studies will be presented, which in many respects do not coincide with the explanation of the mechanism of action of the organ given in textbooks.

Pipes carved from reeds or other hollow-stemmed plants were probably the first wind instruments. They make sounds if you blow across the open end of the tube, or blow into the tube, vibrating with your lips, or, pinching the end of the tube, blow in air, causing its walls to vibrate. The development of these three types of simple wind instruments led to the creation of the modern flute, trumpet and clarinet, from which the musician can produce sounds in a fairly large range of frequencies.

In parallel, such instruments were created in which each tube was intended to sound on one specific note. The simplest of these instruments is the flute (or "Pan's flute"), which usually has about 20 pipes of various lengths, closed at one end and making sounds when blown across the other, open end. The largest and most complex instrument of this type is the organ, containing up to 10,000 pipes, which the organist controls with a complex system of mechanical gears. The organ dates back to ancient times. Clay figurines depicting musicians playing an instrument made of many bellows pipes were made in Alexandria as early as the 2nd century BC. BC. By the X century. the organ begins to be used in Christian churches, and treatises written by monks on the structure of organs appear in Europe. According to legend, big organ, built in the X century. for Winchester Cathedral in England, had 400 metal pipes, 26 bellows and two keyboards with 40 keys, where each key controlled ten pipes. Over the following centuries, the device of the organ was improved mechanically and musically, and already in 1429 an organ with 2500 pipes was built in Amiens Cathedral. Germany towards the end of the 17th century. organs have already acquired their modern form.

The organ, installed in 1979 in the concert hall of the Sydney Opera House in Australia, is the largest and most technically advanced organ in the world. Designed and built by R. Sharp. It has about 10,500 pipes controlled by a mechanical transmission with five hand and one foot pads. The organ can be controlled automatically by a magnetic tape on which the musician's performance was previously recorded digitally.

Terms used to describe organ devices, reflect their origin from tubular wind instruments into which air was blown by mouth. The tubes of the organ are open from above, and from below they have a narrowed conical shape. Across the flattened part, above the cone, passes the “mouth” of the pipe (cut). A “tongue” (horizontal rib) is placed inside the tube, so that a “labial opening” (narrow gap) is formed between it and the lower “lip”. Air is forced into the pipe by large bellows and enters its cone-shaped base at a pressure of 500 to 1000 pascals (5 to 10 cm of water column). When, when the corresponding pedal and key are pressed, the air enters the pipe, it rushes up, forming upon exiting labial fissure wide flat stream. A jet of air passes across the slot of the "mouth" and, hitting the upper lip, interacts with the air column in the pipe itself; as a result, stable vibrations are created, which make the pipe “speak”. In itself, the question of how this sudden transition from silence to sound occurs in the trumpet is very complex and interesting, but it is not considered in this article. The conversation will mainly be about the processes that ensure the continuous sound of organ pipes and create their characteristic tonality.

The organ pipe is excited by air entering its lower end and forming a jet as it passes through the gap between the lower lip and tongue. In the section, the jet interacts with the air column in the pipe near the upper lip and passes either inside the pipe or outside it. Steady-state oscillations are created in the air column, causing the trumpet to sound. Air pressure, which varies according to the standing wave law, is shown by colored shading. A removable sleeve or plug is mounted on the upper end of the pipe, which allows you to slightly change the length of the air column during adjustment.

It may seem that the task of describing an air jet that generates and preserves the sound of an organ belongs entirely to the theory of fluid and gas flows. It turned out, however, that it is very difficult to theoretically consider the movement of even a constant, smooth, laminar flow, as for a completely turbulent jet of air that moves in an organ pipe, its analysis is incredibly complex. Fortunately, turbulence, which is a complex form of air movement, actually simplifies the nature of airflow. If this flow were laminar, then the interaction of the air jet with the environment would depend on their viscosity. In our case, turbulence replaces viscosity as the determining interaction factor in direct proportion to the width of the air stream. During the construction of the organ, special attention is paid to ensuring that the air flows in the pipes are completely turbulent, which is achieved with the help of small cuts along the edge of the tongue. Surprisingly, unlike laminar flow, turbulent flow is stable and can be reproduced.

The fully turbulent flow gradually mixes with the surrounding air. The process of expanding and slowing down is relatively simple. The curve depicting the change in the flow velocity depending on the distance from the central plane of its section has the form of an inverted parabola, the top of which corresponds to the maximum value of the velocity. The flow width increases in proportion to the distance from the labial fissure. The kinetic energy of the flow remains unchanged, so the decrease in its speed is proportional to the square root of the distance from the slot. This dependence is confirmed by both calculations and experimental results (taking into account a small transition region near the labial gap).

In an already excited and sounding organ pipe, the air flow enters from the labial slit into an intense sound field in the slit of the pipe. The air movement associated with the generation of sounds is directed through the slot and therefore perpendicular to the plane of the flow. Fifty years ago, B. Brown from the College of the University of London managed to photograph the laminar flow of smoky air in the sound field. The images showed the formation of tortuous waves that increase as they move along the stream, until the latter breaks up into two rows of vortex rings rotating in opposite directions. The simplified interpretation of these and similar observations has led to an incorrect description of the physical processes in organ pipes, which can be found in many textbooks.

A more fruitful method of studying the actual behavior of an air jet in a sound field is to experiment with a single tube in which the sound field is created using a loudspeaker. As a result of such research, carried out by J. Coltman in the laboratory of the Westinghouse Electric Corporation and a group with my participation at the University of New England in Australia, the foundations of the modern theory of the physical processes occurring in organ pipes were developed. In fact, even Rayleigh gave a thorough and almost complete mathematical description of laminar flows of inviscid media. Since it was found that turbulence does not complicate, but simplifies the physical picture of air strings, it was possible to use the Rayleigh method with slight modifications to describe the air flows experimentally obtained and investigated by Koltman and our group.

If there were no labial slot in the tube, then one would expect that the air jet in the form of a strip of moving air would simply move back and forth along with all the other air in the tube slot under the influence of acoustic vibrations. In reality, when the jet leaves the slot, it is effectively stabilized by the slot itself. This effect can be compared with the result of imposing on the general oscillatory movement of air in the sound field a strictly balanced mixing localized in the plane of a horizontal edge. This localized mixing, which has the same frequency and amplitude as the sound field, and as a result creates zero mixing of the jet at the horizontal fin, is stored in the moving air stream and creates a sinuous wave.

Five pipes of different designs produce sounds of the same pitch but different timbre. The second trumpet from the left is the dulciana, which has a gentle, subtle sound, reminiscent of the sound of a stringed instrument. The third trumpet is an open range, giving a light, sonorous sound, which is most characteristic of an organ. The fourth trumpet has the sound of a heavily muffled flute. Fifth trumpet - Waldflote ( « forest flute") with a soft sound. The wooden pipe on the left is closed with a plug. It has the same fundamental frequency as the other pipes, but resonates at odd overtones whose frequencies are an odd number of times the fundamental frequency. The length of the remaining pipes is not exactly the same, as "end correction" is made to obtain the same pitch.

As Rayleigh showed for the type of jet he studied, and as we have comprehensively confirmed for the case with a divergent turbulent jet, the wave propagates along the flow at a speed slightly less than half the speed of air in the central plane of the jet. In this case, as it moves along the flow, the wave amplitude increases almost exponentially. Typically, it doubles as the wave travels one millimeter, and its effect quickly becomes dominant over the simple reciprocating lateral movement caused by sound vibrations.

It was found that the highest rate of wave growth is achieved when its length along the flow is six times the width of the flow at a given point. On the other hand, if the wavelength is less than the width of the stream, then the amplitude does not increase and the wave may disappear altogether. Since the air jet expands and slows down as it moves away from the slot, only long waves, that is, low-frequency oscillations, can propagate along long streams with large amplitude. This circumstance will turn out to be important in the subsequent consideration of the creation of harmonic sounding of organ pipes.

Let us now consider the effect of the sound field of an organ pipe on an air jet. It is easy to imagine that the acoustic waves of the sound field in the pipe slot cause the tip of the air jet to move across the upper lip of the slot, so that the jet is either inside the pipe or outside it. It resembles a picture when a swing is already being pushed. The air column in the pipe is already oscillating, and when the gusts of air enter the pipe in synchronism with the vibration, they retain the force of vibration despite the various energy losses associated with sound propagation and friction of air against the walls of the pipe. If the gusts of air do not coincide with the fluctuations of the air column in the pipe, they will suppress these fluctuations and the sound will fade.

The shape of the air jet is shown in the figure as a series of successive frames as it exits the labial slot into a moving acoustic field created in the “mouth” of the tube by an air column that resonates inside the tube. Periodic displacement of air in the section of the mouth creates a tortuous wave moving at a speed half that of air in the central plane of the jet and increasing exponentially until its amplitude exceeds the width of the jet itself. Horizontal sections show the path segments that the wave travels in the jet in successive quarters of the oscillation period. T. The secant lines approach each other as the jet velocity decreases. In the organ pipe, the upper lip is located in the place indicated by the arrow. The air jet alternately exits and enters the pipe.

Measurement of the sound-producing properties of an air jet can be done by placing felt or foam wedges at the open end of the pipe to prevent sound, and creating a sound wave of small amplitude using a loudspeaker. Reflected from the opposite end of the pipe, the sound wave interacts with the air jet at the “mouth” section. The interaction of the jet with the standing wave inside the pipe is measured using a portable tester microphone. In this way, it is possible to detect whether the air jet increases or decreases the energy of the reflected wave in the lower part of the pipe. For the trumpet to sound, the jet must increase the energy. The measurement results are expressed in terms of acoustic "conductivity", defined as the ratio of the acoustic flux at the exit from the section « mouth" to the sound pressure directly behind the cut. The conductance value curve for various combinations of air discharge pressure and oscillation frequency has a spiral shape, as shown in the following figure.

The relationship between the occurrence of acoustic oscillations in the pipe slot and the moment of arrival of the next portion of the air jet on the upper lip of the slot is determined by the time interval during which the wave in the air flow travels the distance from the labial slot to the upper lip. Organ builders call this distance "undercut". If the "undercut" is large or the pressure (and hence the speed of movement) of the air is low, then the movement time will be large. Conversely, if the "undercut" is small or the air pressure is high, then the travel time will be short.

In order to accurately determine the phase relationship between the fluctuations of the air column in the pipe and the arrival of portions of the air stream on the inner edge of the upper lip, it is necessary to study in more detail the nature of the effect of these proportions on the air column. Helmholtz believed that the main factor here is the amount of air flow delivered by the jet. Therefore, in order for the portions of the jet to communicate as much energy as possible to the oscillating air column, they must arrive at the moment when the pressure near the inner part of the upper lip reaches a maximum.

Rayleigh put forward a different position. He argued that since the slot is located relatively close to the open end of the pipe, the acoustic waves at the slot, which are affected by the air jet, cannot create a lot of pressure. Rayleigh believed that the air flow, entering the pipe, actually encounters an obstacle and almost stops, which quickly creates a high pressure in it, which affects its movement in the pipe. Therefore, according to Rayleigh, the air jet will transfer the maximum amount of energy if it enters the pipe at the moment when not the pressure, but the flow of acoustic waves itself is maximum. The shift between these two maxima is one quarter of the period of oscillation of the air column in the tube. If we draw an analogy with a seesaw, then this difference is expressed in pushing the seesaw when it is at its highest point and has maximum potential energy (according to Helmholtz), and when it is at its lowest point and has maximum speed (according to Rayleigh).

The acoustic conductivity curve of the jet has the shape of a spiral. The distance from the starting point indicates the magnitude of the conductivity, and the angular position indicates the phase shift between the acoustic flow at the outlet of the slot and the sound pressure behind the slot. When the flow is in phase with the pressure, the conductivity values ​​lie in the right half of the helix and the energy of the jet is dissipated. In order for the jet to generate sound, the conductivities must be in the left half of the helix, which occurs when the jet is compensated or phased out with respect to the pressure downstream of the pipe cut. In this case, the length of the reflected wave is greater than the length of the incident wave. The value of the reference angle depends on which of the two mechanisms dominates the excitation of the tube: the Helmholtz mechanism or the Rayleigh mechanism. When the conductivity is in the upper half of the helix, the jet lowers the natural resonant frequency of the pipe, and when the conductivity value is in the lower part of the helix, it raises the natural resonant frequency of the pipe.

The graph of the movement of the air flow in the pipe (dashed curve) at a given jet deflection is asymmetric with respect to the zero deflection value, since the pipe lip is designed so as to cut the jet not along its central plane. When the jet is deflected along a simple sinusoid with a large amplitude (solid black curve), the air flow entering the tube (color curve) "saturates" first at one extreme point of the jet deflection when it completely exits the tube. With an even greater amplitude, the air flow is also saturated at the other extreme point of deviation, when the jet completely enters the pipe. The displacement of the lip gives the flow an asymmetric waveform, the overtones of which have frequencies that are multiples of the frequency of the deflecting wave.

For 80 years, the problem remained unresolved. Moreover, new studies have not actually been conducted. And only now she has found a satisfactory solution thanks to the work of L. Kremer and H. Leasing from the Institute. Heinrich Hertz in the West. Berlin, S. Eller of the US Naval Academy, Coltman and our group. In short, both Helmholtz and Rayleigh were both partly right. The relationship between the two mechanisms of action is determined by the pressure of the injected air and the frequency of sound, with the Helmholtz mechanism being the main one at low pressures and high frequencies, and the Rayleigh mechanism at high pressures and low frequencies. For organ pipes of standard design, the Helmholtz mechanism usually plays a more important role.

Koltman developed a simple and effective way to study the properties of an air jet, which was modified and improved in our laboratory. This method is based on the study of the air jet at the slit of the organ pipe, when its far end is closed with felt or foam sound-absorbing wedges that prevent the pipe from sounding. Then, from a loudspeaker placed at the far end, a sound wave is fed down the pipe, which is reflected from the edge of the slot, first with an injected jet, and then without it. In both cases, the incident and reflected waves interact inside the pipe, creating a standing wave. By measuring with a small probe microphone the change in wave configuration as the air jet is applied, it can be determined whether the jet increases or decreases the energy of the reflected wave.

In our experiments, we actually measured the "acoustic conductivity" of the air jet, which is determined by the ratio of the acoustic flow at the outlet of the slit, created by the presence of the jet, to the acoustic pressure directly inside the slit. Acoustic conductivity is characterized by magnitude and phase angle, which can be represented graphically as a function of frequency or discharge pressure. If we present a graph of conductivity with an independent change in frequency and pressure, then the curve will have the shape of a spiral (see figure). The distance from the starting point of the helix indicates the conductivity value, and the angular position of the point on the helix corresponds to the delay in the phase of the tortuous wave that occurs in the jet under the influence of acoustic vibrations in the pipe. A delay of one wavelength corresponds to 360° around the circumference of the helix. Due to the special properties of the turbulent jet, it turned out that when the conductivity value is multiplied by the square root of the pressure value, all the values ​​measured for a given organ pipe fit on the same spiral.

If the pressure remains constant, and the frequency of the incoming sound waves increases, then the points indicating the magnitude of the conductivity approach in a spiral towards its middle in a clockwise direction. At a constant frequency and increasing pressure, these points move away from the middle in the opposite direction.

Interior view of the Sydney Opera House organ. Some pipes of its 26 registers are visible. Most of the pipes are made of metal, some are made of wood. The length of the sounding part of the pipe doubles every 12 pipes, and the diameter of the pipe doubles approximately every 16 pipes. Many years of experience of the masters - the creators of organs allowed them to find the best proportions, providing a stable sound timbre.

When the point of conductivity is in the right half of the helix, the jet takes energy from the flow in the pipe, and therefore there is an energy loss. With the position of the point in the left half, the jet will transfer energy to the flow and thereby act as a generator of sound vibrations. When the conductivity value is in the upper half of the helix, the jet lowers the natural resonant frequency of the pipe, and when this point is in the lower half, the jet raises the natural resonant frequency of the pipe. The value of the angle characterizing the phase lag depends on which scheme - Helmholtz or Rayleigh - the main excitation of the pipe is carried out, and this, as shown, is determined by the values ​​of pressure and frequency. However, this angle, measured from the right side of the horizontal axis (right quadrant), is never significantly greater than zero.

Since 360° around the circumference of the helix corresponds to a phase lag equal to the length of the winding wave propagating along the air jet, the magnitude of such a lag from much less than a quarter of the wavelength to almost three-fourths of its length will lie on the spiral from the center line, that is, in that part , where the jet acts as a generator of sound vibrations. We have also seen that, at a constant frequency, the phase lag is a function of the injected air pressure, which affects both the speed of the jet itself and the speed of propagation of the tortuous wave along the jet. Since the speed of such a wave is half the speed of the jet, which in turn is directly proportional to the square root of the pressure, a change in the phase of the jet by half the wavelength is possible only with a significant change in pressure. Theoretically, the pressure can change by a factor of nine before the trumpet stops producing sound at its fundamental frequency, if other conditions are not violated. In practice, however, the trumpet starts sounding at a higher frequency until the specified upper limit of pressure change is reached.

It should be noted that in order to make up for energy losses in the pipe and ensure sound stability, several turns of the helix can go far to the left. Only one more such loop, the location of which corresponds to about three half-waves in the jet, can make the pipe sound. Since the conductance of the strings at this point is low, the sound produced is weaker than any sound corresponding to a point on the outer turn of the helix.

The shape of the conduction helix can become even more complicated if the deviation at the upper lip exceeds the width of the jet itself. In this case, the jet is almost completely blown out of the pipe and blown back into it at each displacement cycle, and the amount of energy that it imparts to the reflected wave in the pipe ceases to depend on a further increase in amplitude. Correspondingly, the efficiency of the air strings in the mode of generating acoustic vibrations also decreases. In this case, an increase in the jet deflection amplitude only leads to a decrease in the conduction helix.

The decrease in jet efficiency with an increase in the deflection amplitude is accompanied by an increase in energy losses in the organ pipe. The fluctuations in the pipe are quickly set to a lower level, at which the energy of the jet exactly compensates for the energy losses in the pipe. It is interesting to note that in most cases the energy losses due to turbulence and viscosity are much higher than the losses associated with the scattering of sound waves through the slot and open ends of the pipe.

Section of an organ pipe of a range type, which shows that the tongue has a notch to create a uniform turbulent movement of the air stream. The pipe is made of "marked metal" - an alloy with a high content of tin and the addition of lead. In the manufacture of sheet material from this alloy, a characteristic pattern is fixed on it, which is clearly visible in the photograph.

Of course, the actual sound of the pipe in the organ is not limited to one specific frequency, but contains sounds of a higher frequency. It can be proved that these overtones are exact harmonics of the fundamental frequency and differ from it by an integer number of times. Under constant air injection conditions, the shape of the sound wave on the oscilloscope remains exactly the same. The slightest deviation of the harmonic frequency from a value that is strictly a multiple of the fundamental frequency leads to a gradual, but clearly visible change in the waveform.

This phenomenon is of interest because the resonant vibrations of the air column in an organ pipe, as in any open pipe, are set at frequencies that are somewhat different from those of the harmonics. The fact is that with an increase in frequency, the working length of the pipe becomes slightly smaller due to a change in the acoustic flux at the open ends of the pipe. As will be shown, overtones in the organ pipe are created by the interaction of the air jet and the lip of the slot, and the pipe itself serves for higher frequency overtones mainly as a passive resonator.

Resonant vibrations in the pipe are created with the greatest movement of air at its holes. In other words, the conductivity in the organ pipe should reach its maximum at the slot. It follows that resonant vibrations also occur in a pipe with an open long end at frequencies at which an integer number of half-waves of sound vibrations fit in the length of the pipe. If we designate the fundamental frequency as f 1 , then higher resonant frequencies will be 2 f 1 , 3f 1 etc. (In fact, as already pointed out, the highest resonant frequencies are always slightly higher than these values.)

In a pipe with a closed or muffled distant horse, resonant oscillations occur at frequencies at which an odd number of quarters of a wavelength fits in the length of the pipe. Therefore, to sound on the same note, a closed pipe can be half as long as an open one, and its resonant frequencies will be f 1 , 3f 1 , 5f 1 etc.

The results of the effect of changing the pressure of the forced air on the sound in a conventional organ pipe. Roman numerals denote the first few overtones. The main trumpet mode (in color) covers a range of well-balanced normal sounds at normal pressure. As the pressure increases, the sound of the trumpet goes to the second overtone; when the pressure is reduced, a weakened second overtone is created.

Now let's return to the air stream in the organ pipe. We see that high-frequency wave disturbances gradually decay as the jet width increases. As a result, the end of the jet near the upper lip oscillates almost sinusoidally at the fundamental frequency of the sounding of the pipe and almost independently of the higher harmonics of the acoustic field oscillations near the pipe slot. However, the sinusoidal movement of the jet will not create the same movement of the air flow in the pipe, since the flow is “saturated” due to the fact that, with an extreme deviation in any direction, it flows completely either from the inside or from the outside of the upper lip. In addition, the lip is usually somewhat displaced and cuts the flow not exactly along its central plane, so that the saturation is not symmetrical. Therefore, the fluctuation of the flow in the pipe has a complete set of harmonics of the fundamental frequency with a strictly defined ratio of frequencies and phases, and the relative amplitudes of these high-frequency harmonics rapidly increase with increasing amplitude of the air jet deflection.

In a conventional organ pipe, the amount of jet deflection in the slot is commensurate with the width of the jet at the upper lip. As a result, a large number of overtones are created in the air stream. If the lip divided the jet strictly symmetrically, there would be no even overtones in the sound. So usually the lip is given some blending to keep all the overtones.

As you might expect, open and closed pipes create different sound qualities. The frequencies of the overtones created by the jet are a multiple of the main jet oscillation frequency. A column of air in a pipe will strongly resonate to a certain overtone only if the acoustic conductivity of the pipe is high. In this case, there will be a sharp increase in amplitude at a frequency close to the frequency of the overtone. Therefore, in a closed tube, where only overtones with odd numbers of resonant frequency are created, all other overtones are suppressed. The result is a characteristic "muffled" sound in which even overtones are weak, although not completely absent. On the contrary, an open pipe produces a "lighter" sound, since it retains all the overtones derived from the fundamental frequency.

The resonant properties of a pipe depend to a large extent on energy losses. These losses are of two types: losses due to internal friction and heat transfer, and losses due to radiation through the slot and the open end of the pipe. Losses of the first type are more significant in narrow pipes and at low oscillation frequencies. For wide tubes and at a high oscillation frequency, losses of the second type are significant.

The influence of the location of the lip on the creation of overtones indicates the advisability of shifting the lip. If the lip divided the jet strictly along the central plane, only the sound of the fundamental frequency (I) and the third overtone (III) would be created in the pipe. By shifting the lip, as shown by the dotted line, second and fourth overtones appear, greatly enriching the sound quality.

It follows that for a given length of pipe, and hence a certain fundamental frequency, wide pipes can serve as good resonators only for the fundamental tone and the next few overtones, which form a muffled "flute-like" sound. Narrow tubes serve as good resonators for a wide range of overtones, and since the radiation at high frequencies is more intense than at low frequencies, a high "stringy" sound is produced. Between these two sounds there is a sonorous juicy sound, which becomes characteristic of a good organ, which is created by the so-called principals or ranges.

In addition, a large organ may have rows of tubes with a conical body, a perforated plug, or other geometric variations. Such designs are intended to modify the resonant frequencies of the trumpet, and sometimes to increase the range of high-frequency overtones in order to obtain a timbre of a special sound coloring. The choice of material from which the pipe is made does not matter much.

There are a large number of possible types of air vibrations in a pipe, and this further complicates the acoustic properties of the pipe. For example, when the air pressure in an open pipe is increased to such an extent that the first overtone will be created in the jet f 1 one quarter of the length of the main wave, the point on the conduction spiral corresponding to this overtone will move to its right half and the jet will cease to create an overtone of this frequency. At the same time, the frequency of the second overtone 2 f 1 corresponds to a half wave in the jet, and it can be stable. The sound of the trumpet will therefore shift to this second overtone, almost a whole octave higher than the first, with the exact frequency of oscillation depending on the resonant frequency of the trumpet and the air pressure.

A further increase in discharge pressure can lead to the formation of the next overtone 3 f 1 provided that the "undercut" of the lip is not too large. On the other hand, it often happens that low pressure, insufficient to form the fundamental tone, gradually creates one of the overtones on the second turn of the conduction helix. Such sounds, created with excess or lack of pressure, are of interest for laboratory research, but are used extremely rarely in the organs themselves, only to achieve some special effect.

View of a standing wave at resonance in pipes with an open and closed upper end. The width of each colored line corresponds to the amplitude of vibrations in different parts of the pipe. The arrows indicate the direction of air movement during one half of the oscillatory cycle; in the second half of the cycle, the direction of movement is reversed. Roman numerals indicate harmonic numbers. For an open pipe, all harmonics of the fundamental frequency are resonant. A closed pipe must be half as long to produce the same note, but only the odd harmonics are resonant for it. The complex geometry of the "mouth" of the pipe somewhat distorts the configuration of the waves closer to the lower end of the pipe, without changing them « main » character.

After the master in the manufacture of the organ has made one pipe with the necessary sound, his main and most difficult task is to create the entire series of pipes of appropriate volume and harmony in sound throughout the entire musical range of the keyboard. This cannot be achieved by a simple set of pipes of the same geometry, differing only in their dimensions, since in such pipes the energy losses from friction and radiation will have a different effect on oscillations of different frequencies. To ensure the constancy of acoustic properties over the entire range, it is necessary to vary a number of parameters. The diameter of the pipe changes with its length and depends on it as a power with an exponent k, where k is less than 1. Therefore, long bass pipes are made narrower. The calculated value of k is 5/6, or 0.83, but taking into account the psychophysical characteristics of human hearing, it should be reduced to 0.75. This value of k is very close to that empirically determined by the great organ makers of the 17th and 18th centuries.

In conclusion, let us consider a question that is important from the point of view of playing the organ: how the sound of many pipes in a large organ is controlled. The basic mechanism of this control is simple and resembles the rows and columns of a matrix. Pipes arranged by registers correspond to the rows of the matrix. All pipes of the same register have the same tone, and each pipe corresponds to one note on the hand or foot keyboard. The air supply to the pipes of each register is regulated by a special lever on which the name of the register is indicated, and the air supply directly to the pipes associated with a given note and constituting a column of the matrix is ​​regulated by the corresponding key on the keyboard. The trumpet will sound only if the lever of the register in which it is located is moved and the desired key is pressed.

The placement of the organ pipes resembles the rows and columns of a matrix. In this simplified diagram, each row, called the register, consists of pipes of the same type, each of which produces one note (the upper part of the diagram). Each column associated with one note on the keyboard (lower part of the diagram) includes different types of pipes (left part of the diagram). A lever on the console (right side of the diagram) provides air access to all pipes of the register, and pressing a key on the keyboard blows air into all pipes of a given note. Air access to the pipe is possible only when the row and column are turned on at the same time.

Nowadays, a variety of ways to implement such a circuit can be used using digital logic devices and electrically controlled valves on each pipe. Older organs used simple mechanical levers and reed valves to supply air to the keyboard channels, and mechanical sliders with holes to control the flow of air to the entire register. This simple and reliable mechanical system, in addition to its design advantages, allowed the organist to regulate the speed of opening all the valves himself and, as it were, made this too mechanical musical instrument closer to him.

In the XIX at the beginning of the XX century. large organs were built with all sorts of electromechanical and electropneumatic devices, but recently preference has again been given to mechanical transmissions from keys and pedals, and complex electronic devices are used to simultaneously turn on combinations of registers while playing the organ. For example, the world's largest powered organ was installed in the Sydney Opera House concert hall in 1979. It has 10,500 pipes in 205 registers distributed among five hand and one foot keyboards. The key control is carried out mechanically, but it is duplicated by an electrical transmission to which you can connect. In this way, the organist's performance can be recorded in an encoded digital form, which can then be used for automatic playback on the organ of the original performance. The control of registers and their combinations is carried out using electric or electro-pneumatic devices and microprocessors with memory, which allows you to widely vary the control program. Thus, the magnificent rich sound of the majestic organ is created by a combination of the most advanced achievements of modern technology and traditional techniques and principles that have been used by masters of the past for many centuries.

The efficiency of the heating system primarily depends on the competent choice of the heating battery connection scheme. It is ideal if, with a small fuel consumption, radiators are able to generate the maximum amount of heat. In the material below, we will talk about what are the connection schemes for heating radiators in an apartment building, what is the peculiarity of each of them, as well as what factors should be considered when choosing a particular option.

Factors Affecting Radiator Efficiency

The main requirements for a heating system are, of course, its efficiency and economy. Therefore, its design must be approached thoughtfully so as not to miss all sorts of subtleties and features of a particular living space. If you do not have sufficient skills to create a competent project, it is better to entrust this work to specialists who have already proven themselves and have positive feedback from customers. Relying on the advice of friends who recommend certain methods of connecting radiators is not worth it, since in each case the initial conditions will be different. In other words, what works for one person doesn't necessarily work for another.

However, if you still want to deal with piping to heating radiators yourself, pay attention to the following factors:

• size of radiators and their thermal power;
• placement of heating devices inside the house;
• connection diagram.

The modern consumer is presented with a choice of a variety of models of heating devices - these are hinged radiators made of various materials, and plinth or floor convectors. The difference between them is not only in size and appearance, but also in the methods of supply, as well as the degree of heat transfer. All these factors will affect the choice of options for connecting heating radiators.

Depending on the size of the heated room, the presence or absence of an insulating layer on the outer walls of the building, the power, as well as the type of connection recommended by the radiator manufacturer, the number and dimensions of such devices will vary.

As a rule, radiators are placed under windows or in the piers between them, if the windows are at a great distance from each other, as well as in the corners or along the blank wall of the room, in the bathroom, hallway, pantry, often on the stairwells of apartment buildings.

To direct the heat energy from the radiator into the room, it is advisable to attach a special reflective screen between the appliance and the wall. Such a screen can be made from any heat-reflecting foil material - for example, penofol, isospan or any other.

Before connecting the heating battery to the heating system, pay attention to some features of its installation:

• within one dwelling, the level of placement of all batteries should be the same;
• the ribs on the convectors must be directed vertically;
• the middle of the radiator must coincide with the center point of the window or can be shifted 2 cm to the right or left;
• the total length of the battery should be from 75% of the width of the window opening;
• the distance from the window sill to the radiator must be at least 5 cm, and there must be at least 6 cm of clearance between the appliance and the floor. It is best to leave 10-12 cm.

Please note that not only the heat transfer of the battery, but also the level of heat loss will depend on the correct choice of methods for connecting heating radiators in an apartment building.

It is not uncommon for apartment owners to assemble and connect the heating system, following the recommendations of friends. In this case, the result is much worse than expected. This means that mistakes were made during the installation process, the power of the devices is not enough to heat a particular room, or the scheme for connecting heating pipes to batteries is inappropriate for this house.

Differences between the main types of battery connections

All possible types of connection of heating radiators differ in the type of piping. It may consist of one or two pipes. In turn, each of the options involves a division into systems with vertical risers or horizontal lines. Quite often, horizontal wiring of the heating system in an apartment building is used, and it has proven itself well.

Based on which option for connecting pipes to radiators was chosen, the scheme of their connection will directly depend. In heating systems with a single-pipe and two-pipe circuit, the lower, side and diagonal method of connecting radiators is used. Whichever option you choose, the main thing is that enough heat enters the room for its high-quality heating.

The described types of pipe wiring are referred to as a tee connection system. However, there is another variety - this is a collector circuit, or beam wiring. When using it, the heating circuit is laid to each radiator separately. In this regard, the collector types of battery connection have a higher cost, since a lot of pipes will be required to implement such a connection. In addition, they will pass through the entire room. However, usually in such cases, the heating circuit is laid in the floor and does not spoil the interior of the room.

Despite the fact that the described collector connection scheme assumes the presence of a large number of pipes, it is increasingly used during the design of heating systems. In particular, this type of radiator connection is used to create a water "warm floor". It is used as an additional source of heat, or as the main one - it all depends on the project.

Single pipe scheme

A single-pipe heating system is called, in which all radiators, without exception, are connected to one pipeline. At the same time, the heated coolant at the inlet and cooled down at the return moves along the same pipe, gradually passing through all the heating devices. In this case, it is very important that the internal section of the pipe is sufficient to fulfill its main function. Otherwise, all heating will be inefficient.

A heating system with a single-pipe circuit has certain pros and cons. It would be erroneous to believe that such a system can significantly reduce the cost of laying pipes and installing heating appliances. The fact is that the system will function effectively only if it is properly connected, taking into account a large number of subtleties. Otherwise, it will not be able to heat the apartment properly.

Savings in the arrangement of a single-pipe heating system really take place, but only if a vertical supply riser is used. In particular, in five-story houses, this wiring option is often practiced in order to save materials. In this case, the heated coolant is fed upwards through the main riser, where it is distributed to all other risers. Hot water in the circuit gradually passes through the radiators on each floor, starting from the top.

As the coolant reaches the lower floors, its temperature gradually decreases. To compensate for the temperature difference, radiators with a larger area are installed on the lower floors. Another feature of a single-pipe heating system is that it is recommended to install bypasses on all radiators. They allow you to easily remove the batteries in case of need for repair, without stopping the entire system.

If heating with a single-pipe circuit is made according to a horizontal wiring scheme, the movement of the coolant may be associated or dead-end. Such a system has proven itself in pipelines up to 30 m long. At the same time, the number of connected radiators can be 4-5 pieces.

Two-pipe heating systems

Inside the two-pipe circuit, the coolant moves through two separate pipelines. One of them is used for the supply flow with hot coolant, and the other for the return flow with cooled water, which moves towards the heating tank. Thus, when installing heating radiators with a bottom connection or any other type of tie-in, all batteries warm up evenly, since water of approximately the same temperature enters them.

It is worth noting that a two-pipe circuit when connecting batteries with a lower connection, as well as when using other schemes, is the most acceptable. The fact is that this type of connection provides a minimum amount of heat loss. The water circulation scheme can be both associated and dead-end.

Please note that if there is a two-pipe wiring, it is possible to adjust the thermal performance of the radiators used.

Some owners of private houses believe that projects with two-pipe types of radiator connections are much more expensive, since more pipes are required to implement them. However, if you look in more detail, it turns out that their cost is not much higher than in the arrangement of single-pipe systems.

The fact is that a single-pipe system implies the presence of pipes with a large cross section and a large radiator. At the same time, the price of the thinner pipes required for a two-pipe system is much lower. In addition, in the end, unnecessary costs will pay off due to better circulation of the coolant and minimal heat loss.

With a two-pipe system, several options are used for connecting aluminum heating radiators. The connection can be diagonal, side or bottom. In this case, the use of vertical and horizontal joints is allowed. In terms of efficiency, the diagonal connection is considered the best option. At the same time, heat is evenly distributed over all heating devices with minimal losses.

The lateral, or one-sided, connection method is used with equal success in both single-pipe and two-pipe wiring. Its main difference is that the supply and return circuits cut into one side of the radiator.

Lateral connection is often used in apartment buildings with a vertical supply riser. Please note that before connecting a heating radiator with side connection, it is necessary to install a bypass and a valve on it. This will allow you to freely remove the battery for washing, painting or replacing without shutting down the entire system.

It is noteworthy that the efficiency of one-sided tie-in is maximum only for batteries with 5-6 sections. If the length of the radiator is much longer, with such a connection there will be significant heat losses.

Features of the bottom piping option

As a rule, a radiator with a bottom connection is connected in cases where unpresentable heating pipes must be hidden in the floor or in the wall so as not to disturb the interior of the room.

On sale you can find a large number of heating devices in which manufacturers provide a lower supply to heating radiators. They are available in various sizes and configurations. At the same time, in order not to damage the battery, it is worth looking at the product passport, where the method of connecting one or another model of equipment is prescribed. Usually, ball valves are provided in the battery connection unit, which allow you to remove it if necessary. Thus, even without experience in such work, using the instructions, you can connect bimetallic heating radiators with a bottom connection.

The circulation of water inside many modern radiators with a lower connection occurs in the same way as with a diagonal connection. This effect is achieved due to an obstacle located inside the radiator, which ensures the passage of water throughout the heater. After that, the cooled coolant enters the return circuit.

Please note that in heating systems with natural circulation, the bottom connection of radiators is undesirable. However, significant heat losses from such a connection scheme can be compensated by an increase in the thermal power of the batteries.

Diagonal connection

As we have already noted, the diagonal method of connecting radiators is characterized by the smallest heat loss. With this scheme, the hot coolant enters from one side of the radiator, passes through all sections, and then exits through the pipe from the opposite side. This type of connection is suitable for both one- and two-pipe heating systems.

Diagonal connection of radiators can be performed in 2 versions:

1. The hot coolant flow enters the upper opening of the radiator, and then, having passed through all sections, exits the lower side opening on the opposite side.
2. The coolant enters the radiator through the bottom hole on one side and flows out from the opposite side from above.

Connecting in a diagonal way is advisable in cases where the batteries consist of a large number of sections - from 12 or more.

Natural and forced circulation of the coolant

It is worth noting that the method of connecting pipes to radiators will also depend on how the coolant circulates inside the heating circuit. There are two types of circulation - natural and forced.

The natural circulation of the liquid inside the heating circuit is achieved through the application of physical laws, while additional equipment does not need to be installed. It is possible only when using water as a heat carrier. If any antifreeze is used, it will not be able to freely circulate through the pipes.

Heating with natural circulation includes a boiler for heating water, an expansion tank, 2 pipelines for supply and return, as well as radiators. In this case, the operating boiler gradually heats the water, which expands and moves along the riser, passing through all the radiators in the system. Then, the already cooled water flows back into the boiler by gravity.

To ensure the free movement of water, horizontal pipes are mounted with a slight slope to the direction of movement of the coolant. The heating system with natural circulation is self-regulating because the amount of water varies according to its temperature. When the water is heated, the circulation pressure increases, which ensures uniform heating of the room.

In systems with natural fluid circulation, it is possible to install a radiator with a bottom connection, provided a two-pipe connection, and also use a top-wiring scheme in a one- and two-pipe circuit. As a rule, this type of circulation is carried out only in small houses.

Please note that air vents must be provided on the batteries through which air locks can be removed. Alternatively, risers can be equipped with automatic air vents. It is advisable to place the heating boiler below the level of the heated room, for example, in the basement.

If the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe house exceeds 100 m 2, then the method of circulation of the coolant must be forced. In this case, it will be necessary to install a special circulation pump, which will ensure the movement of antifreeze or water along the circuit. The power of the pump depends on the size of the house.

The circulation pump can be mounted on both the supply and return pipes. It is very important to install automatic bleeders at the top of the pipeline or provide Mayevsky taps on each radiator in order to remove air locks manually.

The use of a circulation pump is justified both in one- and two-pipe systems with a vertical and horizontal type of radiator connection.

Why is it important to correctly connect heating radiators

Whichever connection method and type of radiator you choose, it is very important to make competent calculations and install the equipment correctly. At the same time, it is important to take into account the characteristics of a particular room in order to choose the best option. Then the system will be as efficient as possible and will avoid significant heat losses in the future.

If you want to assemble a heating system in a large expensive mansion, it is better to entrust the design to specialists.

For houses of a small area, you can handle the choice of wiring diagram and installation of batteries yourself. It is only necessary to consider the quality of a particular connection scheme and study the features of the installation work.

Please note that the piping and radiators must be made of the same material. For example, plastic pipes cannot be connected to cast-iron batteries, as this is fraught with trouble.

Thus, provided that the features of a particular house are taken into account, the connection of heating radiators can be done independently. A well-chosen scheme for connecting pipes to radiators will minimize heat loss so that heating devices can work with maximum efficiency.