Cartography as a science arose in the Bronze Age. Archaeological excavations have shown that the oldest samples were created in Egypt, ancient Babylon, Asia Minor (modern Turkey), the Marshall Islands and Italy. Without a schematic outline of the terrain, accurate movement and the implementation of military tactics are impossible. Despite the completely different ideas about the shape of the planet, the inhabitants of the Ancient World, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the New Age and the present, tried to fix all the features of the landscape as reliably as possible. Ancient people allowed many geographical inaccuracies in cartography, and the creation of schemes could be equated with art - they were performed by real masters and supplemented with many artistic elements. For example, cities were drawn in the form of castle towers with family coats of arms, forests were represented by several tree species, trading ports were designated by the type of ships popular in the region (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Maps used until the last century

More similar to modern samples appeared only after the 18th century, when mankind got a complete picture of the geography of the planet, the location of all rivers, seas, oceans.

However, the most accurate plans became available by the middle of the 20th century.

In everyday life, knowing what the symbols of geographical maps mean will help you quickly get to any destination. In the conditions of wilderness and survival, getting lost in the forest, but having a map with you, you can save your life and get out easily. Despite the popularity of GPS-navigators, electronic equipment can always let you down, incorrectly determine the coordinates or run out of power. Paper analogues are at hand and come to the rescue in any situation. They are easy to use not only to find out your location in the wild or populated areas, but also to create a shorter car route. Without the use of schemes, it is difficult to imagine the work of the military, foresters, fishermen, geological engineers and builders. What types of conventional signs exist on maps and how to determine their exact meaning, we will consider further.

Conventional signs of geographical maps

Conventional signs on the map are presented in the form of simplified graphic symbols that designate landscape objects, for example, mountain ranges, lakes, forest plantations, paths, highways, public and residential buildings, boundaries between settlements. The icons differ depending on the type of application. For example, for urban plans they will be one, and for suburban ones they will be completely different.

Figure 2. Main groups of signs

The following groups of characters are distinguished (Figure 2):

1. Scientific or reference. Includes soil types, landscape and soil details, fossils located in the area, types of water bodies and trees, common animals, birds and fish, buildings, municipal and socio-cultural monuments, road junctions, and more. The purpose of such schemes is a detailed display of all important features of the landscape for accurate orientation. Also used for informational purposes;
2. Educational. Designed for teaching children of preschool and school age. Often interactive and intuitive;
3. Tourist. Without them, it is impossible to imagine the luggage of any traveler. Contain accurate landscape details. However, more attention is paid to paths in forests and mountains, crossings over rough or swampy terrain. This group also includes urban options that clearly explain the new city. With their help, it is easy to visit all sightseeing places without getting lost in the interweaving of residential areas and numerous streets.

The newer the scheme, the more it corresponds to the real location of all objects. Often presented in color for easier orientation.

Figure 3. An example of a legend for different maps

The structure of all geographical maps - both obsolete and modern - is divided into two main parts:

• Schematically depicted landscape. The colors evoke the right associations with the real components of the terrain: forest plantations are green, bodies of water are blue or blue, hills are brown, freeways are red or orange, and railway tracks are black. Sometimes details are given, such as the material of the bridge or the type of scaffolding. However, many more signs are displayed on each plane, many of them may seem at first glance incomprehensible;
• Legend (Figure 3). A legend is an explanation for each individual scheme. There is no general standardization in cartography, but decoding of symbols and content must be present without fail, otherwise it is considered invalid. You can find the legend on free fields. Sometimes a separate place is allocated for it. Even if you have forgotten what the pictograms on the plan mean, by referring to the legend, you can intuitively figure it out.

Contrary to the prevailing stereotypes, you do not need to have specialized skills to read a geographical map, and even a schoolboy can cope with this task. Faced with a new scheme, it is enough to familiarize yourself with the legend and begin to orientate.

Types of symbols on maps

Conventional signs of geographical maps are necessary to display schematic objects on the terrain plan, their features and characteristics. They are divided into three varieties, which are determined by the scale: linear, area and point. Each of them includes objects similar in features: industrial buildings and administrative objects (bridges, railway crossings, borders between regions and countries) or details of the natural landscape. Each group is identified by a simple and easy to remember icon. For example, coniferous forests are represented by a schematic pine tree symbol (Figure 4). It reliably displays the type of object and is universal for most terrain plans, which will provide convenient and instant orientation in any conditions.

Figure 4. Types of signs on maps

The main requirements for icons by which you can select a suitable geographical map:

1. Readability and recognizability;
2. Lack of congestion of elements;
3. Ease of remembering;
4. Compactness and reliability.

What the symbols of topographic maps include, we will consider further.

Linear signs

Linear symbols on the map depict objects that have a certain extent (Figure 5).

Among them:

1. Roads (freeways, highways, highways, paths). Divided into unpaved and asphalted. Modern and roadworthy are highlighted in orange. Gray or black represents unpaved sections of road or trail;
2. Railway and tram tracks. They are divided by the number of tracks (one or several pairs of rails), width (narrow or standard), as well as general condition (working, closed and in construction mode). They are indicated by a horizontal line, on which perpendicular lines are applied in the order: one track - one line. A rectangle is drawn on the line, which indicates the station building or platform;
3. Bridges. They differ depending on the material (reinforced concrete, wood, stone and others), the number of tiers, dynamics (solid, sliding or lifting). Pontoon (floating) are designated by separate symbols;
4. Gas or oil pipelines;
5. Power lines;
6. Cellular or radio communication towers;
7. Rivers of any length or streams, canals;
8. Any fences or walls
9. Borders between settlements and countries.

Figure 5. An example of line signs

Represented by colored thin, bold and bold lines (straight lines, curves). It should be noted that only their length in millimeters with translation to scale is accurate.

On geographical maps there is no correct designation of the width of linear signs.

The exaggerated width makes it easier to read. This group also includes isolines (isohypses) necessary for the three-dimensional designation of the forms and features of the territory.

Area signs

Areal (they are also large-scale) conventional signs on the map of the area are needed to correctly convey the shape and shape, relief, size and location of large geographical objects (Figure 6). Also called "contour". These include both individual areas of the area and entire cities. They have a reliable length and width in a two-dimensional plane, presented on a reduced scale (for example, 1:10000) and shapes that are as close to reality as possible. Their structure is divided into a contour and a colored background, shading or a grid of identical symbols denoting the properties of the object.

Declassified topographic maps of the General Staff of the USSR freely roam the Internet. We all love to download them, view them, and often print them on sheets of paper for further use for their intended purpose - i.e. go hiking with them.

Topographic maps of the General Staff are the most accurate and best. Any other purchased cards printed in modern times will not carry so much accuracy and specificity. Symbols and designations on the topographic maps of the General Staff are much more complex than any other designations of maps bought in the store. We all remember them from geography lessons at school.

As an experienced user of such maps, I would like to describe at the beginning of this article the most important, in my opinion, designations. If the rest are more or less understandable, since they are almost all identical with other types of maps (not the General Staff), then these are something new and still incomprehensible. Actually, I will start with the symbols of rivers, fords, forests and roads.

Rivers and water resources

River speed and direction (0.6 m/s)
Characteristics of rivers and canals: 30 - Width (m), 0,8 - Depth (m), To- Soil type ( To - rocky P - sand, T - solid, AT - viscous)
Water level mark, coast height above sea level (393m)
Brody: 0,3 - depth, 10 - length, To- rocky ground 1,0 - speed (m/s)
swamp passable
swamp impassable
Bridge characteristics: D- building material D - wooden, To - stone, JB - reinforced concrete) 43 - the length of the bridge, 4 - width of the carriageway (m), 10 - carrying capacity in tons

Forest clearing and width in meters (2m)
Field and forest roads
Zimnik, operating road only in the winter season, during the cold period. Can pass through swamps.
Dirt road, 6 - width of the carriageway in meters
Gat - a road with a wooden surface, a flooring made of logs, 3 - roadway width
gat
Railway canvas
gas pipeline
Power lines (TL)
Dismantled railroad
Single track, narrow gauge railway. Also railway bridge
Highway: 6 — the width of the covered part, 8 - the width of the entire road from ditch to ditch in meters; SCH- coating material ( B - cobblestone, G - gravel, To - crushed stone Shl - slag SCH - crushed stone)

Relief

Steep banks of rivers, rocky outcrops, parmas
Relief contours with relative height designation (260 m)
Mountainous area without vegetation cover, covered with kurum stones and remnant rocks
Mountainous area with vegetative cover and sparse trees, forest border visible
Rocks-outliers with a height in meters
Glaciers
Rocks and cliffs
Elevation mark (479.2 m)
Steppe region. near the edge of the forest
Sands, deserts

Photo of some geographical objects

The main winter road, laid through the taiga forest. Thickets here in summer (Yakutia)

Forest dirt road (Ivdelsky district, Northern Urals)

Gat - a road with a wooden surface (Lobnensky forest park, Moscow region)

Rock outcrop, parma (Stone "Giant", Middle Urals)

Rocks-outliers (rock Old Man-Stone, Middle Urals)

It should be understood that all available topographic maps of the USSR General Staff have long been outdated. The information contained on them can date back to the 70-80s of the last century. If you are interested in the details of passing along certain trails, roads, the presence of settlements and geographical objects, then you should check the accuracy of information from other sources in advance. Paths and roads may no longer exist at all. Small settlements can be abandoned and represent wastelands, often already overgrown with young growth.

But, in any case, the maps of the General Staff still carry more accurate information, and you can more productively calculate your route and distance from them. In this article, I did not fill your heads with unnecessary symbols and conventional signs of topographic maps. I posted only the most important and significant for the mountain-taiga and steppe region. Those who are interested in the details can look.

Maps of the General Staff of the USSR were made using the Soviet system of layout and nomenclature of topographic maps. This system is still used in the Russian Federation and in some former Soviet republics. There are newer maps, the state of the terrain on which is approximately 60-80s of the last century, and older maps, the so-called General Staff of the Red Army, made by pre-war geodetic intelligence. "The maps are compiled in the Gauss-Kruger conformal transverse-cylindrical projection, calculated from the parameters of the Krasovsky ellipsoid for the six-degree zone," - And if you don't understand, don't worry! The main thing is to remember (or write down, save this article) those points that I cited above. Knowing them, you can skillfully use maps and plan your route without using gps.

Conventional signs of topographic maps and plans.

Map frames and coordinate lines. Sheets of topographic maps have three frames: inner, minute and outer. The inner frame is formed by segments of parallels that limit the area of ​​the map from the north and south, and segments of meridians that limit it from the west and east. The values ​​of latitudes and longitudes on the lines of the inner frame are associated with the nomenclature of the map and are written in each of its corners.

A minute frame is placed between the inner and outer frames, on which the divisions corresponding to one minute of latitude (left and right) and longitude (top and bottom) are applied. Dots on the frame mark tens of seconds.

The system of rectangular coordinates on the map is represented by a kilometer grid formed by coordinate lines drawn through 1 km x and y. Values x and y, expressed in kilometers, are inscribed at the exits of the lines outside the inner frame of the map.

Plans of scales 1:5000-1:500 with rectangular layout have only a grid of rectangular coordinates. Its lines are drawn through 10 cm.

Conditional signs. On plans and maps, objects of the area are depicted by conventional signs.

Conventional signs distinguish contour, off-scale and linear.

Contour conventional signs depict objects whose shape and size can be conveyed on the scale of a plan (map). These include land (forests, gardens, arable land, meadows), water bodies, and for larger scales - buildings, structures. The outlines of objects (contours) on the plan are shown by dotted lines or lines of a certain thickness and color. Signs indicating the nature of the object are placed inside the contour.

Off-scale conventional signs depict objects that need to be plotted on the plan, but cannot be depicted on a scale (gas stations, wells, geodetic network points, etc.).

Linear conventional signs depict objects whose length is expressed on the scale of the plan, but the width is not expressed (power lines and communications, pipelines, fences, trails).

To reflect the characteristics of the depicted objects, many conventional signs are accompanied by explanatory captions. So, when depicting a railway, they indicate the height of the embankment and the depth of the excavation, the gauge on the narrow gauge road. When depicting a highway, its width and pavement material are indicated; when depicting communication lines - the number of wires and their purpose; when depicting forests - tree species, average height, trunk thickness and distance between trees.

Relief image. On maps and plans, the relief is depicted with the help of contour lines, elevation marks and conventional signs.

Contours- lines of section of the earth's surface by equally spaced level surfaces. In other words, horizontal lines are lines of equal height. Horizontals, like other points of the terrain, are projected onto a level surface. Q and applied to the plan (Fig. 4.3).

Rice. 4.3. Contours: h is the height of the relief section; d- laying

Difference h the heights of adjacent contours, equal to the distance between the secant surfaces, is called relief section height. The value of the section height is signed at the bottom frame of the plan.

The horizontal distance between adjacent horizontals is called laying. The minimum in this place is the laying, perpendicular to the horizontals, - initiation of a ramp. The lower the slope, the steeper the slope.

The direction of the ramp is indicated berghashes- short strokes at some horizontal lines, directed towards the descent. On separate horizontal lines in their breaks, their height is written so that the top of the numbers points in the direction of the rise.

Contours with round heights are made thickened, and to reflect the details of the relief, they use semi-horizontals- dashed lines corresponding to half the height of the relief section, as well as auxiliary horizontals with short strokes, drawn at an arbitrary height.

The image of the relief with contour lines is supplemented by inscribing elevation marks on the plan near the characteristic points of the relief and special conventional signs depicting cliffs, rocks, ravines, etc.

The main landforms are mountains, hollows, ridges, hollows and saddles (Fig. 4.4).

Rice. 4.4. Main landforms: a- mountain; b- basin; in- ridge; G- hollow; d- saddle; 1 - watershed line; 2 - spillway line.

Mountain(hill, hill, barrow, hill) is depicted as closed horizontal lines with berghashes facing outward (Fig. 4.4, a). The characteristic points of the mountain are its top and points at the sole.

Basin(trough) is also depicted as closed horizontal lines, but with berghashes facing inwards (Fig. 4.4, b). The characteristic points of the basin are the points on its bottom and along the crest.

Ridge- elongated elevation. It is depicted as enveloping the ridge crest and elongated horizontal lines running along its slopes (Fig. 4.4, in). Bergstrokes, like those of the mountain, are turned outward. The characteristic line of the ridge is the line that runs along its crest. dividing line.

dell(valley, gorge, ravine, beam) - a recess elongated in one direction. It is depicted as elongated, horizontal lines with bergshrikhs facing inward (Fig. 4.4, G). The characteristic line of the hollow is spillway line(thalweg) - the line along which water runs off.

Saddle(pass) - a decrease between two hills (Fig. 4.4, d). Hollows adjoin the saddle on both sides. A saddle is the intersection of a watershed and a spillway.

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Topic 8. CARTOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS

8.1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONVENTIONAL SIGNS

On maps and plans, the image of terrain objects (situations) is presented in cartographic symbols. Cartographic symbols - a system of symbolic graphic designations used to depict various objects and phenomena on maps, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Symbols are sometimes also called "map legend".
For ease of reading and memorization, many conventional signs have styles that resemble the view of the local objects depicted by them from above or from the side. For example, conventional signs of factories, oil rigs, isolated trees, and bridges are similar in shape to the appearance of the listed local objects.
Cartographic symbols are usually divided into large-scale (contour), off-scale and explanatory (Fig. 8.1). In some textbooks, linear conventional signs are singled out as a separate group.

Rice. 8.1. Symbol types

large-scale (contour) signs are called conventional signs used to fill in the areas of objects expressed on the scale of a plan or map. According to a plan or map, it is possible to determine with the help of such a sign not only the location of the object, but its size and shape.
The boundaries of areal objects on the plan can be depicted with solid lines of different colors: black (buildings and structures, fences, roads, etc.), blue (reservoirs, rivers, lakes), brown (natural landforms), light pink (streets and areas in settlements), etc. The dotted line is used for the boundaries of agricultural and natural lands of the area, the boundaries of embankments and cuts near roads. The boundaries of clearings, tunnels and some structures are indicated by a simple dotted line. The fill characters inside the outline are arranged in a certain order.
Linear symbols(a kind of large-scale conventional signs) are used when depicting objects of a linear nature - roads, power lines, borders, etc. The location and planned outline of the axis of a linear object are depicted accurately on the map, but their width is greatly exaggerated. For example, the symbol of a highway on maps at a scale of 1:100,000 exaggerates its width by 8 to 10 times.
If an object on a plan (map) cannot be expressed by a scale symbol due to its smallness, then off-scale symbol, for example, a landmark, a separately growing tree, a kilometer post, etc. The exact position of an object on the ground is shown main point off-scale symbol. The main point is:

• for signs of a symmetrical shape - in the center of the figure (Fig. 8.2);
• for signs with a wide base - in the middle of the base (Fig. 8.3);
• for signs that have a base in the form of a right angle - at the top of the corner (Fig. 8.4);
• for signs that are a combination of several figures - in the center of the lower figure (Fig. 8.5).

Rice. 8.2. Symmetrical signs
1 - points of the geodetic network; 2 - points of the survey network, fixed on the ground by centers; 3 - astronomical points; 4 - churches; 5 - plants, factories and mills without pipes; 6 - power plants; 7 - water mills and sawmills; 8 - fuel depots and gas tanks; 9 - mines and adits operating; 10 - oil and gas wells without rigs

Rice. 8.3. Signs with a wide base
1 - factory and factory pipes; 2 - waste heaps; 3 - telegraph and radiotelegraph offices and departments, telephone exchanges; 4 - meteorological stations; 5 - semaphores and traffic lights; 6 - monuments, monuments, mass graves, tours and stone pillars over 1 m high; 7 - Buddhist monasteries; 8 - separately lying stones

Rice. 8.4. Signs having a base in the form of a right angle
1 - wind turbines; 2 - gas stations and filling stations; 3 - windmills; 4 - permanent river signaling signs;
5 - free-standing deciduous trees; 6 - free-standing coniferous trees

Rice. 8.5. Signs that are a combination of several figures
1 - plants, factories and mills with pipes; 2 - transformer boxes; 3 - radio stations and television centers; 4 - oil and gas rigs; 5 - tower-type structures; 6 - chapels; 7 - mosques; 8 - radio masts and television masts; 9 - kilns for burning lime and charcoal; 10 - mazars, suborgans (religious buildings)

Objects, expressed by off-scale conventional signs, serve as good landmarks on the ground.
Explanatory symbols (Fig. 8.6, 8.7) are used in combination with large-scale and off-scale; they serve to additionally characterize local objects and their varieties. For example, the image of a coniferous or deciduous tree in combination with a symbol of a forest shows the species of trees prevailing in it, an arrow on a river indicates the direction of its flow, transverse strokes on a symbol of a railway show the number of tracks.

Rice. 8.6. Explanatory conventional signs of the bridge, highway, river

Rice. 8.7. Stand characteristics
In the numerator of the fraction - the average height of the trees in meters, in the denominator - the average thickness of the trunks, to the right of the fraction - the average distance between the trees

The maps contain signatures of their own names of settlements, rivers, lakes, mountains, forests and other objects, as well as explanatory signatures in the form of letters and numbers. They provide additional information about the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of local objects and relief. Letter explanatory signatures are most often given in abbreviated form according to the established list of conditional abbreviations.
For a more visual representation of the terrain on the maps, each group of conventional signs relating to the same type of terrain elements (vegetation cover, hydrography, relief, etc.) is printed with ink of a certain color.

8.2. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS OF LOCAL ITEMS

Settlements on topographic maps at a scale of 1:25,000 - 1:100,000 they show everything (Fig. 8.8). Next to the image of the settlement, its name is signed: cities - in capital letters of a direct font, and a settlement of a rural type - in lowercase letters of a smaller font. Under the name of a rural-type settlement, the number of houses (if known) is indicated, and if there are district and village councils in them, their abbreviated signature (PC, CC).
The names of urban and suburban settlements are printed on the maps in italic capital letters. When depicting settlements on maps, their external outlines and the nature of the layout are preserved, the main and through passages, industrial enterprises, prominent buildings and other buildings that are important as landmarks are distinguished.
Wide streets and squares depicted on the scale of the map are shown with large-scale conventional signs in accordance with their actual size and configuration, other streets are shown with conventional off-scale signs, the main (main) streets are highlighted on the map with a wider gap.

Rice. 8.8. Settlements

Settlements are depicted in the most detail on maps at a scale of 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. Blocks with predominantly fire-resistant and non-fire-resistant buildings are painted over with the appropriate color. Buildings located on the outskirts of settlements are shown, as a rule, all.
On a map of scale 1: 100,000, the image of all main streets, industrial facilities and the most important objects of landmark value is mainly preserved. Separate buildings within blocks are shown only in settlements with very sparse buildings, for example, in dacha-type settlements.
When depicting all other settlements, the buildings are combined into quarters and filled with black paint, the fire resistance of buildings on the map 1:100,000 is not highlighted.
Selected local items Landmarks that matter are mapped most accurately. Such local items include various towers and towers, mines and adits, wind turbines, churches and separately located buildings, radio masts, monuments, individual trees, mounds, remnant rocks, etc. All of them, as a rule, are depicted on maps conventional off-scale signs, and some are accompanied by abbreviated explanatory captions. For example, the signature check ug. with the sign of the mine means that the mine is hard coal.

Rice. 8.9. Selected local items

Road network on topographic maps is depicted in full and in detail. Railways show everything on the maps and are divided according to the number of tracks (one-, two- and three-track), according to the gauge (normal and narrow gauge) and condition (operating, under construction and dismantled). Electrified railways are distinguished by special conventional signs. The number of tracks is indicated by dashes perpendicular to the axis of the conventional sign of the road: three dashes - three-track, two - double-track, one - single-track.
On the railways, stations, sidings, platforms, depots, wayposts and booths, embankments, excavations, bridges, tunnels, semaphores and other structures are shown. Own names of the station (sidings, platforms) are signed next to their conventional signs. If the station is located in a settlement or near it and has the same name as it, then its signature is not given, but the name of this settlement is underlined. The black rectangle inside the station symbol indicates the location of the station relative to the tracks: if the rectangle is located in the middle, then the tracks pass on both sides of the station.

Rice. 8.10. Railway stations and facilities

Conventional signs of platforms, checkpoints, booths and tunnels are accompanied by the corresponding abbreviated signatures ( sq., bl. n., B, tun.). Next to the conventional sign of the tunnel, in addition, its numerical characteristic is placed in the form of a fraction, in the numerator of which the height and width are indicated, and in the denominator - the length of the tunnel in meters.
Highway and ground roads when depicted on maps, they are divided into paved and unpaved roads. Paved roads include freeways, improved highways, highways, and improved dirt roads. Topographic maps show all paved roads available in the area. The width and material of the pavement of motorways and highways are signed directly on their conventional signs. For example, on the highway the signature 8(12)A means: 8 - width of the covered part of the road in meters; 12 - width of the road from ditch to ditch; BUT- coating material (asphalt). On improved dirt roads, only the width of the road from ditch to ditch is usually given. Freeways, improved highways, and highways are highlighted in orange on maps, improved dirt roads - in yellow or orange.

Figure 8.11. Highways and dirt roads

Topographic maps show unsurfaced (country), field and forest roads, caravan routes, trails and winter roads. In the presence of a dense network of roads of a higher class, some secondary roads (field, forest, dirt) on maps of scales 1:200,000, 1:100,000, and sometimes 1:50,000 may not be shown.
Sections of dirt roads passing through wetlands, lined with bundles of brushwood (fascines) on wooden beds and then covered with a layer of earth or sand, are called fascinated road sections. If on such sections of the road, instead of fascines, a flooring of logs (poles) or simply an embankment of earth (stones) is made, then they are called gats and rowings, respectively. Fashin sections of roads, gati and rowing on the maps are indicated by dashes perpendicular to the conventional sign of the road.
On highways and dirt roads, bridges, pipes, embankments, excavations, tree plantings, kilometer posts and passes (in mountainous areas) are shown.
Bridges they are depicted on maps with conventional signs of various shapes depending on the material (metal, reinforced concrete, stone and wood); at the same time, two-tier, as well as drawbridges and drawbridges are distinguished. Bridges on floating supports are distinguished by a special symbol. Next to the conventional signs of bridges with a length of 3 m or more, and located on roads (except for motorways and improved highways), they sign their numerical characteristics in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the length and width of the bridge in meters, and the denominator - the carrying capacity in tons. Before the fraction indicate the material from which the bridge is built, as well as the height of the bridge above the water level in meters (on navigable rivers). For example, the signature next to the symbol of the bridge (Fig. 8.12) means that the bridge is stone (construction material), in the numerator - the length and width of the roadway in meters, in the denominator - the carrying capacity in tons.

Rice. 8.12. Overpass over the railroad

When designating bridges on freeways and improved highways, only their length and width are given. The characteristics of bridges with a length of less than 3 m are not given.

8.3. HYDROGRAPHY (WATER BODIES)

Topographic maps show the coastal part of the seas, lakes, rivers, canals (ditches), streams, wells, springs, ponds and other bodies of water. Their names are signed next to them. The larger the scale of the map, the more detailed the water bodies are depicted.
Lakes, ponds and other bodies of water are shown on maps if their area is 1 mm2 or more on the scale of the map. Reservoirs of smaller sizes are shown only in arid and desert regions, as well as in cases where they have the value of reliable landmarks.

Rice. 8.13. Hydrography

Rivers, streams, canals and main ditches topographic maps show everything. At the same time, it was found that on maps of scales 1:25,000 and 1:50,000, rivers up to 5 m wide, and on maps of a scale of 1:100,000 - up to 10 m, are indicated by one line, wider rivers - by two lines. Channels and ditches with a width of 3 m or more are depicted with two lines, with a width of less than 3 m - with one.
The width and depth of the rivers (channels) in meters are signed as a fraction: in the numerator - the width, in the denominator - the depth and nature of the bottom soil. Such signatures are placed in several places along the river (channel).
River speed (m/s), depicted by two lines, indicate in the middle of the arrow showing the direction of the flow. On rivers and lakes, they also sign the height of the water level in low water in relation to sea level (marks of the water's edges).
On the rivers and canals they show dams, gateways, ferries (transportation), fords and give corresponding characteristics.
wells are indicated by blue circles, next to which the letter is placed To or signature art. to. (artesian well).
Ground water pipelines show solid blue lines with dots (through 8 mm), and underground - broken lines.
To make it easier to find and select sources of water supply in the steppe and desert regions on the map, the main wells are distinguished by a larger symbol. In addition, if there is data to the left of the symbol of the well, an explanatory signature of the ground level mark is given, to the right - the depth of the well in meters and the filling rate in liters per hour.

8.4. SOIL AND VEGETATION COVER

Soil -vegetable cover are usually depicted on maps with large-scale symbols. These include conventional signs of forests, shrubs, gardens, parks, meadows, swamps and salt marshes, as well as conventional signs depicting the nature of the soil cover: sands, rocky surface, pebbles, etc. When designating the soil and vegetation cover, a combination of conditional signs. For example, in order to show a swampy meadow with bushes, the contour is the area occupied by the meadow, inside which the symbols of the swamp, meadow and bushes are placed.
The contours of areas covered with forests, shrubs, as well as the contours of swamps, meadows are indicated on the maps by a dotted line. If a linear local object (ditch, fence, road) serves as the boundary of a forest, garden or other area, then in this case the symbol of the linear local object replaces the dotted line.
Forest, shrubs. The forest area inside the contour is painted over with green paint. The tree species is shown with a deciduous, coniferous tree icon, or a combination of both when the forest is mixed. If there is data on the height, thickness of trees and density of the forest, its characteristics are indicated with explanatory signatures and numbers. For example, the signature indicates that coniferous trees (pine) predominate in this forest, their average height is 25 m, the average thickness is 30 cm, the average distance between tree trunks is 4 m. When depicted on the map, clearings indicate their width in meters.

Rice. 8.14. Forests

Rice. 8.15. shrubs

Areas covered undergrowth of the forest(height up to 4 m), solid shrubs, forest nurseries inside the contour on the map are filled with the appropriate conventional signs and painted over with pale green paint. In areas of continuous shrubs, if data are available, they show the type of shrub with special icons and sign its average height in meters.
swamps they are depicted on the maps with horizontal shading in blue, dividing them according to the degree of passability on foot into passable (broken shading), difficult to pass and impassable (solid shading). Passable swamps are considered to be no more than 0.6 m deep; their depth on maps is usually not signed.

Rice. 8.16. swamps

The depth of difficult and impenetrable swamps is signed next to the vertical arrow indicating the location of the sounding. Impenetrable and impassable swamps are shown on the maps with the same symbol.
Salt marshes on the maps they are shown by vertical shading in blue with their division into passable (broken shading) and impassable (solid shading).

On topographic maps, as their scale decreases, homogeneous topographic symbols are combined into groups, the latter - into one generalized symbol, etc. In general, the system of these designations can be represented as a truncated pyramid, at the base of which are signs for topographic plans at a scale of 1:500, and at the top - for survey topographic maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000.

8.5. COLORS OF TOPOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS

Colors topographic symbols are the same for maps of all scales. Line marks of lands and their contours, buildings, structures, local objects, strongholds and boundaries are printed when publishing black color, relief elements - brown; reservoirs, streams, swamps and glaciers - blue(mirror of water - light blue); areas of tree and shrub vegetation - green(dwarf forests, elfins, shrubs, vineyards in light green), fire-resistant neighborhoods and highways in orange, non-fire-resistant neighborhoods and improved dirt roads in yellow.
Along with topographic symbols for topographic maps, conditional abbreviations of own names political and administrative units (for example, Lugansk region - Lug.) and explanatory terms (for example, power plant - el.-st., southwestern - SW, worker's settlement - r. p.).

8.6. CARTOGRAPHIC FONTS USED ON TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS AND MAPS

A font is a graphic style of letters and numbers. Fonts that are used on topographic pianos and maps are called cartographic.

Depending on a number of graphic features, cartographic fonts are divided into groups:
- according to the slope of the letters - straight (ordinary) and italic with slopes to the right and left;
- according to the width of the letters - narrow, normal and wide;
- by lightness - light, bold and bold;
- by the presence of undercuts.

On topographic maps and plans, two types of basic fonts are mainly used: topographic and skeleton italics (Fig. 8.17).

Rice. 8.17. Core fonts and cursive numerals

Topographic (hairline) font T-132 is used to sign rural-type settlements. It is drawn with a line thickness of 0.1-0.15 mm, all elements of the letters are thin hair lines.
Base italic finds application in the design of topographic maps, agricultural maps, land management pianos, etc. On topographic maps, explanatory signatures and characteristics are made in italics: astronomical points, ruins, factories, factories, stations, etc. The design of the letters has a pronounced oval shape . The thickness of all elements is the same: 0.1 - 0.2 mm.
Computational Font or cursive letters of numbers, belongs to the group of cursive fonts. It was designed for entries in field journals and computational sheets, since in geodesy many processes of field and cameral work were associated with recording the results of instrumental measurements and their mathematical processing (see Fig. 8.17).
Modern computer technology provides a wide, almost unlimited choice of fonts of different types, sizes, patterns and slopes.

8.7. SIGNS ON TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS AND MAP

In addition to conventional signs, there are various inscriptions on topographic plans and maps. They constitute an important element of the content, explain the depicted objects, indicate their qualitative and quantitative characteristics, and serve to obtain reference information.

According to their meaning, the inscriptions are:

• own names of geographical objects (cities, rivers, lakes
  and etc.);
• part of a conventional sign (garden, arable land);
• conventional signs and own names at the same time (signatures of the names of cities, objects of hydrography, relief);
• explanatory captions (lake, mountain, etc.);
• explanatory text (transfer information about the distinctive features of objects, specify their nature and purpose) (Fig. 8.18).

The inscriptions on the cards are made in different fonts, differing in the pattern of letters. Up to 15 different fonts can be used on maps. The pattern of the letters of each font has elements that are unique to this font, which is based on knowledge of the features of various fonts.
Certain fonts are used for groups of related objects. For example, roman fonts are used for city names, italic fonts for names of hydrographic objects, etc. Each inscription on the map should be well read.
There are distinctive features in the arrangement of inscriptions of their own names. The names of settlements are located on the right side of the contour parallel to the northern or southern side of the map frame. This position is most desirable, but not always feasible. The names should not cover the images of other objects and fit in the map frame, so it is necessary to place the names to the left, above and below the contour of the settlement.

Rice. 8.18. Examples of inscriptions on maps

The names of areal objects are placed inside the contours, so that the signature is evenly distributed over the entire area of ​​the object. The name of the river is placed parallel to its channel. Depending on the width of the river, the inscription is placed inside or outside the outline. It is customary to sign large rivers several times: at the source, at characteristic bends, at the confluence of rivers, etc. When one river flows into another, the inscriptions of the names are placed so that there is no doubt about the name of the rivers. Before the confluence, the main river and tributary are signed, after the confluence, the name of the main river is required.
When inscriptions are located not horizontally, special attention is paid to their readability. The following rule is followed: if the elongated contour along which the inscription is to be placed is located from northwest to southeast, then the inscription is placed from top to bottom; if the contour stretches from northeast to southwest, then the inscription is placed from bottom to top.
The names of the seas and large lakes are placed inside the contour of the basins along a smooth curve, in the direction of their length and symmetrically to the shores. The inscriptions of small lakes are placed as inscriptions of settlements.
The names of the mountains are placed, if possible, to the right of the top of the mountains and parallel to the southern or northern frame. The names of mountain ranges, sand formations and deserts are signed in the direction of their length.
Explanatory inscriptions are placed parallel to the north side of the frame.
Numerical characteristics are arranged depending on the nature of the information they transmit. The number of houses in rural-type settlements, elevations of the earth's surface and water lines are signed parallel to the northern or southern side of the frame. The speed of the river flow, the width of the roads and the material of their coating are located along the axis of the object.
Labels should be located in the least loaded places of the cartographic image, so that there is no doubt about which object they refer to. The inscriptions should not cross the confluence of rivers, characteristic details of the relief, images of objects that have the value of landmarks.

Basic rules for constructing cartographic fonts: http://www.topogis.ru/oppks.html

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What are conventional signs?
2. What types of symbols do you know?
3. What objects are depicted on maps with large-scale symbols?
4. What objects are depicted on maps with off-scale symbols?
5. What is the purpose of the main point of the off-scale symbol?
6. Where is the main point located on the out-of-scale symbol?
7. What is the purpose of color schemes?
8. What is the purpose of using explanatory labels and numbers on maps?

Conventional signs of topographic maps

Tikhonova L.Ya. geography teacher, MBOU "Lyceum No. 3", Prokhladny, KBR

Do you know the symbols?

Read the letter

Hello mother!

We went hiking. We left early in the morning

out, went on up,

turned west and approached

.To the right of us was,

. Then, past along

by we returned to.

The glorious hero Alyosha Popovich lived in Russia,

and he only knew how to lie on the stove, and with Tugarin

Let's fight the snake. He went once gold

free the people from the paws of the Tugarins.

His path lay through birch forest , past the rotten

swamps through which path was. I went

Alyosha into the very thicket of the forest and sees the picturesque lake ,

and next to him forester's house . He asks the forester

how to get him river , where is the Tugarin army

located. And the old man answers him, the way is long

you have to. First you go to dirt road ,

turn into Pine forest . There you will see golodets ,

boldly go from him to spring , at the spring

have a deep ravine , you will cross it and you will see meadow ,

standing on that meadow lonely tree .

If you approach him, Tugarin himself will appear.

Write the story in symbols

http://aida.ucoz.ru

Determine the direction

Measure the distance using the scale in fig. 39

in 1 cm 100 m

• Determine the scale of the plan.
• Measure the distance from the birch to the barn with a ruler.
• Calculate the distance using the scale.
• Determine the distance from the birch to the point 162.3 m; to the lake; to the wooden bridge.

0.9 cm

0.9 cm x 100 m = 90 m

Draw a plan of the area

An observer stands in the center of the area in the meadow. He sees:

• North, 300 m, school
• East, 250 m, bushes
• N-W, 400 m, orchard
• To the south, 150 m, the lake, the eastern shore is swampy
• South-west, 200 m, bush
• On the s-v, 450 m, mixed forest
• 3, 200 m, light forest
• South-east, 100 m, well

M: in 1cm 100m

Plan from one point is called polar

http://aida.ucoz.ru

Draw a route plan for the area (M 1: 10000m)

The guys went from school (v. 1) on an excursion (the school is located in the northwest area)

v.1 → v.2 - on c. 800 m along the path through the orchard,

v.2 - a well on the bank of the river. Belka, the river flows from the south. us.

v.2→v.3 - 500 m against the river along the path through the bushes,

v.3 - spring,

t.3 → t.4 - on the s-w. on a dirt road through the field 400 m.

v.4 - a windmill, to the south of v.4 we saw a lake, the eastern shore of which is swampy,

t.4→t.5 - to the south-west. 400 m along the path through the meadow to the birch (v. 5),

vol.5 → vol.1 – back to school on a dirt road through woodlands

http://aida.ucoz.ru

draw a sign

draw a sign

windmill

draw a sign

draw a sign

rare forest

draw a sign

free standing tree