A child of three parents can be used. DNA of three: First child conceived using new "three-parent" technique born in Mexico

• The technology, tested overseas, allows parents with genetic abnormalities to edit the mother's egg and eventually have a healthy child.
• Specialists from New York conducted a successful experiment in Mexican territory, because there are no laws prohibiting this. The technique is officially legalized only in the UK.

In fact, the miraculous birth took place five months ago, but only now experts have found it possible to declare the event a success. Like all people on planet Earth, a little boy has DNA with genes from both parents. However, in his hereditary code there is also a small fragment of donor DNA - that is, the genes of a third person. Therefore, with a certain stretch, we can say that the parents of the little Arab are not two, but three.

This genetic trick means that the child did not inherit from the mother a mutation that could have killed him at an early age. The boy's father and mother are citizens of Jordan. Well, the technology itself, which can cause an avalanche of disputes, is legally approved only in the UK.

However, the procedure was carried out by specialists from the United States in a territory where there are no laws at all according to which this experiment could be banned. American embryologists from the New Hope Medical Center (New York) hope that their success will turn on the green light for an unusual technique in various countries of the world, which will give hope to millions of genetically imperfect men and women to acquire normal, healthy offspring, i.e. not to give birth children, obviously doomed to an early death.

For the first time in history, hereditary information from three people allowed a newly born little man to avoid a terrible disease. And now doctors know for sure that by reconstructing the mother's egg (and only in this way, and not otherwise), it is possible to ensure that the child is born healthy.

The boy's parents, whose names have not been released, have already lost two children due to a hereditary disease called Leigh's syndrome (subacute necrotizing encephalomyopathy). This is a very rare mutation leading to severe brain damage at a very early age. The first child of the tragic couple died at the age of six months after severe torment, the second - at the age of 8 months. Usually such children do not live up to 4 years, dying from pulmonary insufficiency.

The genes that cause Leigh's syndrome were found in the mother's mitochondrial DNA, which was determined by genetic analysis. It is worth noting that mitochondrial genes (and there are only 37 of them) are never inherited through the father.

Dejected by the loss of two offspring, the couple went to America in order to ask for help from the staff of the New Hope Center, which is engaged in innovations of this kind. Since American laws do not allow genetic manipulation of human mitochondrial DNA, parents and doctors went to Mexico. Doctors removed the nucleus from the cell and transplanted it into a nucleus-deprived donor egg, the mitochondria of which did not contain the genes that cause Leigh's syndrome. This egg was then fertilized in vitro with sperm from the child's father.

This procedure was repeated five times, and as a result, one of the eggs survived and began to divide. Thus a new life was born.

Doctors write that the possibilities of the tested technique are endless - in the matter of ridding human fetuses of hereditary defects. How far specialists will go in its use is still difficult to say. Still, there are risks and quite a lot of them. But the first step, as they say, is taken on quite solid ground.

Cutaway model of mitochondria

Gregory Han/Flickr

Ukrainian reproductive specialists told about the birth of the first child in the country with the DNA of three parents - the main one from the father and mother and mitochondrial DNA from a donor woman, UNIAN reports.

The procedure of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT), which was carried out by the staff of the Nadiya clinic, is aimed at giving birth to healthy children in women who suffer from mitochondrial defects. There are two methods of MRT. One of them is that the nucleus of the mother's egg, which contains the main genetic material, is transplanted into a donor egg with the nucleus previously removed, after which it is fertilized with the father's sperm. As a result of such a procedure, carried out by employees of the New Hope clinic in New York in Guadalajara, Mexico, in the summer of 2016, the first ever child from three parents.

The second method, which was used for the first time in the world by Ukrainian doctors, is that a mother's egg with defective mitochondria is first fertilized and then transferred to a nucleus devoid of a donor egg, which already contains the DNA of both parents (this technique is called pronuclear transfer). In both cases, the resulting embryo is placed in the mother's uterus for gestation, as in a conventional in vitro fertilization (IVF) procedure.

“With the help of pronuclear nuclear transfer, a 34-year-old woman with infertility for 15 years was able to give birth to a genetically healthy “her own” child. For many years she tried to get pregnant using the IVF method in Ukrainian and Israeli clinics. At the beginning of January, "our" child was born. For the first time in Ukraine, the reproductive specialists of the Nadezhda clinic managed to achieve pregnancy due to the pronuclear transfer of the parents’ nuclei into an enucleated (devoid of their own nucleus) donor egg,” said Valeriy Zukin, director of the Nadiya clinic, at a press conference. According to him, the presence of DNA from three people in the child was confirmed by tests carried out in laboratories in Ukraine and Germany.

Previously at the World Congress on Reproductive Technology Art 2016 in New York, Zukin reported that two of his patients underwent pronuclear transfer MRT, who do not have hereditary mitochondrial diseases, but due to mitochondrial deficiency, they had miscarriages in the early stages.

Currently, the MRT procedure is officially allowed only in the UK, although such experiments have not yet been carried out there. In most countries, this issue is currently not regulated by law. Experiments in Mexico and Ukraine were approved by the respective ethical committees.

However, MRT is systematically criticized by experts. They are concerned about the lack of data on the effectiveness and safety of this procedure for the child and his future offspring. There have also been repeated calls for MRT to be performed only on male embryos, since males do not pass on their mitochondria to their offspring. At the same time, one of Zukin's patients was reported to be pregnant with a girl (the sex of the child born was not indicated in the UNIAN note).

The baby boy, born by New Hope staff, is healthy and doing well. Also, according to information Nature e, a child of three parents was born in China, and a publication dedicated to this is now under peer review in one of the scientific journals.

Doctors and scientists have long dreamed of a time when it would be possible to “turn off” defective genes in human DNA. And today we are one step closer to a fantastic future without hereditary diseases.

Science has made another significant breakthrough. A child was born in Mexico, whose parents became three people at once: biological mother, father and donor woman who gave the baby a healthy gene instead of a damaged one. It was successfully built into the DNA of the child at the stage of embryonic development.

The world's first child with three "parents" was born in the spring of this year, but only now scientists were able to report on the success of the experiment - when it became clear that the baby is developing normally.

The child's mother was found to have a hereditary gene that causes Leah's disease, a severe lesion of the nervous system in infants. The couple's first two children died in infancy and parents decided to turn to American scientists to help them give birth to a healthy heir.

Since experiments on the use of DNA donors as a third "parent" are officially allowed only in the UK, a team of scientists from New York led by John Zhang decided to conduct an experiment abroad - in Mexico.

Family (Jordanian nationality) - A gene swap option has been proposed in which the mother's egg nucleus (where the damaged gene is located) is replaced with an egg nucleus from a healthy donor woman. Then such a “corrected” egg is fertilized and implanted in the mother.

The baby is now 5 months old. He is healthy - in his DNA there are only 1% of the genes responsible for the development of Leigh's syndrome, while the disease itself develops in the presence of 18% of defective genes.

Scientists will have to carefully monitor the health and development of the child. But now American researchers are being congratulated on their success by their colleagues around the world.

Their experiment means that in the future, it will be possible to exclude all genetic diseases for which there is currently no panacea- how plague and cholera were neutralized in their time.

At the same time, debates continue in developed countries regarding the "ethics" of conducting such genetic experiments. Sami Zhang and his colleagues believe simply: "What saves people's lives is ethical."

Photos in the text - DepositPhotos.

Age after two years often becomes the age of inexplicable stubbornness and negativism. This is a very important period in the development of the baby.

During the period, the baby is aware of himself and strives for independence. He discovers for the first time that he is the same person as others, for example, like his parents. One of the manifestations of this discovery is the appearance in his speech of the pronoun "I". Prior to this, the child speaks of himself only in the third person or calls himself by name.

The new self-awareness manifests itself in the desire to imitate adults, imitate their behavior and try in various ways to assert their equality with them.

The child begins to form a will, which is called "autonomy" or independence. Children do not want to experience excessive control from adults and tend to make their own choice in many, even minor situations.

If the parents noticed this moment and realized that it was time to rebuild and change their previous attitude towards the child, the crisis of three years can go quite smoothly and painlessly. In the case when there were warm, friendly relations between parents and the child before, and a benevolent atmosphere reigned in the family, parents will even be surprised if someone tells them that their child is at a difficult stage of development. But if the parents have not realized that the old methods of communicating with the child are no longer relevant at the new age stage, then the child can turn into a completely uncontrollable little tyrant.

The child begins to realize himself as a separate person, with his own desires and characteristics. At this age, the child has new favorite words and expressions “I AM”, “DO NOT WANT” and “NO”.

The kid often acts the other way around: you call him, and he runs away; ask to be careful, and he deliberately scatters things. The child screams, may stomp his feet, swing at you with an angry, angry face. Thus, the baby shows his activity, independence, perseverance in achieving the desired. But the skill for this is still not enough. He begins to dislike something, and the child expresses his displeasure very emotionally.

The crisis can begin as early as 2.5 years, and end in 3.5 - 4 years.

Parents are horrified: something terrible has begun to happen to the child! Frequent tantrums, sometimes on the verge of seizures: try not to buy a toy, falls to the floor and screams like a cut! Incredible stubbornness, disobedience… “Get off! This is my chair, I sat on it!” - shouts to dad, and in the eyes of genuine anger. What happened to the baby? “We missed the moment, and we have some kind of monster growing!” - parents state in alarm. "Dismissed utterly!" - Grandparents grumble.

“Nothing of the kind, everything is in perfect order!” say child psychologists. It's just that a child has a crisis of three years, which is necessary for him to grow up like air. It is in the third year of life that the baby for the first time persistently informs us: “I myself! I'm already an adult!

The crisis of three years must take place in the life of every child. If not, then something is wrong with the baby. Crisis is good! Yes, parents are in for a difficult period, but it defines a new, very important stage in the development of the child.

There are several such crises in a child's life, and each of them can become a creative and progressive stage of growth. It is at the age of three that it is important to support the baby's desire for self-affirmation and adulthood! If your baby is two years old: expect a crisis! It will grow gradually, reach a stormy peak - with those very tantrums and conflicts, and then come to naught, becoming a great school of life for the baby.

Seven signs of a three-year crisis.

It is important to distinguish normal growth problems from being spoiled or from the baby's whims associated with a lack of mother's love and warmth.

1. Negativism. The child gives a negative reaction "no!" not so much on the action that he is asked to perform, but on the demand or request of a certain adult. He doesn't do something just because a certain adult suggested it to him. In this case, the child ignores the demands of one family member or one teacher, but can obey others.

At first glance, it seems that a naughty child of any age behaves this way. But with ordinary disobedience, he does not do something because he does not want to do exactly this, for example, go to bed on time. If he is offered another occupation, interesting and pleasant for him, he will immediately agree.

Negativism is an act of a social nature: it is most of all addressed to specific people. With a sharp manifestation of negativism by a child, communication with an adult can take on an extreme form, when the child replies in defiance to any statement of an adult: “Eat soup!” - “I won’t!”, “Let’s go for a walk” - “I won’t go”, “Hot milk” - “No, not hot” and so on.

At the age of three, the child for the first time becomes able to act contrary to his immediate desire. The child's behavior is determined not by this desire, but by relationships with an adult. The motive of behavior is already outside the concrete situation. Remember: negativism is not a pathology or a sophisticated desire of a child to annoy an adult.

Of course, negativism is a crisis phenomenon that should disappear with time. But the fact that at the age of 3 a child gets the opportunity to act not under the influence of any random desire, but on the basis of other, more complex and stable motives, is an important achievement in his development.

When a child is told “yes” and he repeats “no”, the baby makes it clear that he has the right to his own views and wants to be considered. The child is fighting for his autonomy, the struggle for his right to choose, which is an absolutely necessary condition for personal development. Faced with a categorical rejection of such behavior on the part of the parents, the baby finds himself in conditions unfavorable for gaining experience that is vital for the formation of his personality.

If at this stage of life the "no" of the little man is completely ignored by adults, then the boy or girl may not learn the best life lesson for himself. The meaning of this lesson boils down to something like this: if you want to be good, you must always agree with external opinion, especially authoritative opinion. Having made such a decision in early childhood, many boys and girls, who please their parents and teachers with obedience, are far from always able to say “no” when older comrades invite them to take part in unseemly deeds.

An adult who causes flashes of negativism in a child should analyze the nature of the relationship with the baby. Perhaps he is too demanding of the child, too strict with him or inconsistent in his actions. Sometimes an adult, unwittingly, can provoke outbreaks of negativism. This happens when an authoritarian model of interaction with a child is used.

Negativism can disappear very quickly if adults do not indulge in lengthy disputes with the baby, do not try to “eradicate sedition” in the bud and insist on their own. At the same time, negativism can be turned into a game that teaches the baby to express his desires and intentions differently. You can, for example, play the game "I don't want to." Moreover, the mother could play the role of a naughty child. And then the child himself will have to find the right solution for the “capricious little mother”, thereby suggesting how best to behave.

This example clearly shows that the correct position of the parents is certainly important. But the techniques by which they can “honorably” get out of a difficult situation in their relationship with the child are also important.

2. Stubbornness. The kid insists on something only because he himself suggested it.

Buy a ball!

Mom buys, but after a minute the balloon is no longer needed.

Buy a car!

Do you really need her?

A minute later, interest in the machine was gone, and she was lying around without wheels. The explanation is simple: in fact, the child is not interested in both the ball and the machine, but it is important for him to insist on his own. If mom doesn't buy - hysterical! But stubbornness must be distinguished from perseverance: at other times, the car is of real research interest, and your baby will play with it for a long time.

Stubbornness is the reaction of a child who insists on something not because he really wants it, but because he himself told adults about it. He demands that his opinion be taken into account. His initial decision determines all his behavior, and the child cannot refuse this decision even under changed circumstances.

Stubbornness is not the persistence with which a child achieves what he wants. Stubbornness differs from persistence in that a stubborn child continues to insist on his decision, although he no longer wants it so much, or does not want it at all, or has long lost his desire.

Domestic psychologists give the following example of stubbornness: “Grandma asks three-year-old Vova to eat a sandwich. Vova, who is playing with the constructor at this time, refuses. Grandmother asks him again and again, begins to persuade. Vova does not agree. Grandmother comes up to him after forty minutes and again offers to eat a sandwich. Vova, who is already hungry and is not averse to eating the proposed sandwich, rudely replies: “I said - I won’t eat your sandwich! I won't do it for anything!" The grandmother, upset and offended, begins to scold the boy: “You can’t talk to your grandmother like that. Grandma is twenty times older than you. I know better than you what you need to eat.

Vova lowers his head down, his nostrils flare noisily, his lips are tightly compressed. Grandmother, seeing her grandson's lowered head, thinks that she "won", and complacently asks: "Well, Vova, will you eat a sandwich?" Vova, instead of answering, throws the details of the designer on the floor, tramples them with his feet and shouts: “I won’t, I won’t, I won’t eat your sandwich!” He cries because he wants to eat for a long time, but does not know how to adequately get out of this situation and give up his word.

Adults who are next to the child at such a moment should teach the baby what to do in this case, and not drive him into a corner with their demands. Of course, the grandmother can "win the battle" by making the child do what she demands. But it is better for an adult not to take the position of "who wins." This will only lead to increased tension and possibly hysteria in the child. In addition, the child can learn the non-constructive behavior of an adult, and he himself will act in a similar way in the future.

How to deal with a stubborn child?

• Be sensitive. Intervene less in the actions of the child, do not rush him. Sometimes it is more convenient for a mother to do something for the child, for example, to dress, feed, clean, etc., but do not rush. Let him dress and undress at his pleasure, clean up scattered toys and comb his hair in front of a mirror. Be patient. This period in a relationship with a child is not only his growing pains, but also an exam for adults.

• Be more flexible and resourceful. For example, a child refuses to eat, although you know for sure that he should already be rather hungry. Don't beg him. And, for example, set the table and put a toy next to it. Pretend that she came to dinner and asks the baby, as an adult, to try if the soup is too hot and feed her. The result is amazing: many children, carried away by the game, sit next to the toy and somehow imperceptibly eat the contents of the plate with it.

Or another example: “I will not wear mittens (take off my pajamas, wash my hands, etc.!” A parent can say in a calm voice: “Yes, of course, I DO NOT ALLOW you to wear mittens for a walk (take off your pajamas before dinner, wash your hands with soap and wipe them with a towel)". The child usually immediately begins to put on mittens, take off pajamas, etc. These are the "little tricks" that allow you not to bring communication to a conflict!

• Three-year-old children expect close people to recognize their independence and self-reliance. Therefore, expand the rights and responsibilities of the baby. Allow him to exercise his independence within reasonable limits.

The child wants to help his mother put things in order - great! Give him a rag, a broom or a vacuum cleaner in his hands and do not forget about praise. If parents during this period begin to give the baby more freedom, then by doing this they support his new idea of ​​\u200b\u200bhimself and teach him to distinguish between those areas of life in which he can really behave almost like an adult, and those in which he still remains a small child, in need of help and guidance.

3. obstinacy. The kid suddenly rebels against the usual things that he used to do without problems. She categorically refuses to wash, eat, dress. For example, a child already knows how to eat with a spoon, but he may flatly refuse to eat on his own.

Unlike negativism, obstinacy is not directed at a person, but against the former way of life, against the rules that were in the life of a child up to three years old. Obstinacy is expressed in a kind of children's dissatisfaction, causing a reaction with which the child responds to everything that is offered to him and what is being done. Authoritarian upbringing in the family, when parents often use orders and prohibitions, contributes to a vivid manifestation of obstinacy.

From the usual insufficient compliance of the child, obstinacy differs in tendentiousness. The child is rebellious, his dissatisfied, defiant behavior is tendentious in the sense that it is really imbued with a hidden rebellion against what the child has dealt with before.

Very often, parents of three-year-old children complain that the child suddenly begins to show his independence. He shouts that he will tie his shoelaces himself, pour soup into a bowl himself, and cross the road himself. Moreover, often he does not know how to do this, but, nevertheless, requires complete independence.

Parents, depending on the situation, on the individual characteristics of the child, on family traditions, can solve the problem in different ways: to distract the child, to persuade him, to allow him to act independently. But if this action is dangerous for the life and health of the baby, adults must definitely prohibit the child from doing this (for example, crossing the road, turning on the gas).

4. willfulness. Now the same, painfully familiar, “I myself!” always comes to the fore. He strives to do everything he can and cannot do. Much has not yet worked out, he understands that he needs to turn to an adult for help, but pride does not allow, because he himself is already an adult! The poor little man is torn apart by an internal contradiction: I myself can’t, and I can’t ask adults. Conflict, grief, hysteria, roar ...

5. protest, riot. The kid goes into conflict with everyone, and it seems to his parents that he is maliciously mocking them. Throws a toy:

Pick up, I can't! - commands mom.

No, just pick it up.

I can't! You lift! - and hysteria.

6. Depreciation. Defiantly breaks toys, turns out a cosmetic bag and draws on the walls with her mother's best lipstick. It can call names, screw into speech rude and even obscene words heard somewhere. Psychologists explain: by doing so, he reminds: "I'm in charge here!".

What is devalued in the eyes of a child? What used to be familiar is interesting and expensive. A three-year-old child can discard or even break an adored toy (favorite things in the past are depreciated). Such phenomena indicate that the child's attitude to other people and to himself is changing. He is psychologically separated from close adults.

7. Despotism and jealousy.

I said that dad would sit in this chair, not in the chair!

Try dad to move - hysteria! If there are other children in the family, the little despot will spitefully throw away their toys, push the "rival" off his mother's knees.

In a family with an only child, the despotism of a son or daughter can often manifest itself. In this case, the kid, by all means, wants to ensure that any of his desires is fulfilled, he wants to become "master of the situation." The means that he will use in this case can be very diverse, depending on the “weak spot” in the behavior of the parents.

If there are several children in the family, the same symptom can be called jealousy. The child is forced to share power over others with a brother or sister. This situation does not suit him, and he fights for power with all his might. Jealousy can manifest itself openly: children often fight, quarrel, try to subdue an opponent, to show that one of them is better, “more important”.

To prevent this from happening, parents should be more sensitive to the needs of each child in the family. Sometimes it is better to postpone some household chores, but be sure to give at least a few minutes of undivided attention to each of the children, no matter what age they may be, during the day. Any child needs mom or dad for, even the shortest, time “belongs” only to him alone, when you don’t have to share parental love with anyone.

These are the main symptoms of the crisis of three years. It is easy to see, having considered these symptoms, that the crisis manifests itself mainly in such features that make it possible to recognize in it a kind of rebellion against authoritarian upbringing, it is like a protest of the child in the logic “No!”. This is a protest of a small person who demands independence, who has outgrown those norms of interaction and forms of guardianship that developed at an early age.

All symptoms are around the axis "I" of the child and the people around him. These symptoms indicate that the child's attitude to the people around him or to his own personality is changing. In general, the symptoms, taken together, give the impression of an emancipation of the child: before, adults "led him by the hand", but now he has a tendency to "walk on his own." Personal action and consciousness “I AM”, “I WANT”, “I CAN”, “I DO” appear (it is during this period that many children begin to use the pronoun “I” in speech).

The crisis of three years (as, indeed, any other crisis) will be acute only if adults do not notice or do not want to notice the changes taking place in the child, if the parents, by all means, strive to preserve the former nature of the relationship in a family that the child has already outgrown. In this case, adults try to restrain the activity and independence of their child. The result can only be a growing mutual misunderstanding, frequent conflicts.

The crisis of the third year of life is the period when the child first begins to realize: he has grown up and also already represents something, can influence other people and circumstances, decide for himself what to do, what he wants and does not want. He feels like a big person and requires appropriate attitude and respect! And we, parents, still dictate and command - what to wear, when to eat and sleep, how to play and what to do. That's why rebellion is born: I decide everything myself! Moreover, the conquest of the right to self-determination takes place not only in the struggle with adults, but also with oneself.

It is infinitely difficult for parents to withstand stubbornness, screams, tantrums. But remember: your baby himself is much harder in these contradictions of his! He does not realize what is happening to him, and is not in control of his emotions, the storm overtakes him from the inside. This is how the formation of the psyche occurs in agony.

The peak of the crisis - tantrums. Moreover, if up to two years they also sometimes happened, but were associated with overwork, which means that it was necessary to calm and help, now hysteria has become a tool of manipulation. The child seems to be testing his parents (not on purpose, of course!), whether this method will help to achieve his desire or not. By the way, tantrums require spectators - that's why the kid loves to make a scene in a store, on a playground or right in the middle of a city street.

By the way, the crisis of three years is similar to the teenage crisis. And on how wisely the parents behave, it will largely depend on what the teenage period will be like - a severe catastrophe with bad companies and mother's tears or a successful, albeit difficult, attainment of adulthood.

How to behave so that everyone is a winner?

• Change the tactics and strategy of communication with the child: it's time to recognize that he is an adult (well, almost), respect his opinion and desire for independence. Do not do for the child what he can do himself, let him try as much as possible - everything that is not life-threatening: washing the floor, setting the table, washing. Well, he will carry water, break a couple of plates - not a great loss ... But how much he will learn and how he will be able to assert himself!

• Constantly offer choice (or the illusion of choice). Let's say mom knows - it's time for a walk, and suggests: "Kostya, shall we go for a walk on foot on the stairs or on the elevator?" (Options: In a black jacket or green? Will you eat borscht or porridge? From a plate with a flower or with a typewriter? With a spoon or a fork?).

• Do not force, but ask for help: "Seryozha, take me by the hand across the road, otherwise I'm scared." And now the son tightly clings to his mother by the hand - the situation is under control and without conflict.

• It is necessary to expect that a child needs more time for everything than an adult, because he still has a different type of nervous system and rhythm of life. Let's say that a mother needs a few minutes to dress herself and dress the child, but now he is dressing himself - which means that the process must begin half an hour earlier.

All this will help prevent tantrums. And yet they inevitably happen, and very often in public. What to do then?

• To the ultimatum demand of the child, we say a firm and tough “No!”. And we turn away. The main thing is to maintain external calmness and impassivity - no matter how hard it may be. The kid screams, falls to the floor, knocks with his feet, passers-by look accusingly ... We'll have to be patient. You follow the lead, and hysteria will become a child's habitual tool for manipulating parents.

• If the little shrew defiantly fell into a puddle or onto the roadway, we take it in an armful, transfer it to a safe place and put it as we took it - let it scream there. Alas, exhortations at such a moment may not help, you just have to wait until the storm has passed.

• Creating pleasant perspectives - sometimes this also helps to calm. For example, mom says: “Kolya, you screamed because you really wanted to watch a cartoon. But now we're going to buy bread. On the way we will buy felt-tip pens, we will draw.

• Finally the baby calmed down. At the same time I realized that the method does not work. Do not criticize him: "Why are you yelling, I'm ashamed, people are looking at you ...". It’s better to say bitterly: “It’s very unpleasant for me that such a cry turned out ...” or “I’m so angry at what happened that I just want to scream myself!”. Such phrases teach the child to express their emotions. Later, he will also say something like this: “I’m sorry that you didn’t notice my efforts!”. And it’s easier for yourself when you speak out your feelings, and it’s clear to others what the causes of the outbreak are.

Typical mistakes of parents during the crisis of three years of their child is their lack of a firm position, a clear definition of what and how to demand from the child, how exactly to take into account the characteristics of this age stage. Often different family members cannot agree with each other on the principles of upbringing, which creates additional difficulties. An approach that requires the child to obey his parents completely and breaks his will is also mistaken. The consequence of typical parental mistakes is the formation of a "vicious circle": mistakes "spur" the child's negative emotions, and their increase leads to an increase in parents' confusion, self-doubt, and emotional breakdowns.

The correct actions of parents imply an understanding of the behavior of the child, the meaning of his actions. They are based on a clear position that determines when, how and what to insist on, what to put up with in the child's behavior, what educational methods are useful to use.

In order to successfully pass the crisis of three years, we must remember the principles: firmness in intentions, but flexibility in actions. It is important to take into account the individual characteristics of the baby. It is useful to have in reserve various pedagogical techniques that allow parents to help their child successfully overcome the crisis and ascend to a new age stage of personality development.

there are a lot of interesting articles here! - http://www.gromootwod.ru/crisisofthirdyear

Parents will be able to choose the intelligence, character and physique of the future baby. And in 2016, the first child from three parents will be born - this technology allows women with genetic mutations in mitochondria to have healthy children. Professor Dmitry Balalykin, Head of the Department of the History of Medicine at the First Moscow State Medical University named after Sechenov, tells how this technology works, when the first test-tube baby appeared and what consequences should be expected from interference in the natural course of things.

How it works

Recently, the House of Lords of the British Parliament approved the so-called amendment to the “three-parent law”. Now in the UK it is allowed to combine the genes of three people in artificial insemination. Already in 2016, the first “designer babies”, as they are called in the Western media, will appear. We are working on the same topic at the Kulakov Scientific Center for Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology. I think it will not be long before the moment when this technology becomes a reality in Russia.

In 1978, the first test-tube baby was born in the UK - a certain Louise Brown. In 1986, the first such child was born in Russia - in the same Kulakov Scientific Center. In general, Russian research in the field of genetics and embryology historically repeats Western ones. But if earlier the gap in the development of technologies was calculated in years, but now it is not years, but months.

Let's try to figure out what kind of technology it is - artificial insemination with the participation of three parents, and what it means for medicine and society as a whole. In fact, this technology is a continuation of the IVF (in vitro fertilization) technology, in which sperm and eggs are combined in a test tube and placed in the uterus at the right time for pregnancy. In biology, this is called artificial meiosis, when germ cells merge, a single nucleus with DNA is formed and growth begins. But DNA is contained not only in the nucleus, but also in the mitochondria. Let it be 0.1% of the total genetic material, but it contains information about hereditary diseases. In the case of fertilization involving three parents, the diseased mitochondria are replaced with healthy ones from a donor.

In terms of social relevance, this new technology is certainly not on par with advances such as the polio vaccine in the United States, when factory horns honked in salute to its inventor, Professor Salk. Then they managed to save millions of people, now we are talking about other scales - scientists expect to correct genetic errors in the future children of several thousand parents who still do not have the opportunity to become such. However, in technological terms, this is the most complex manipulation and breakthrough technology, although it is extremely controversial from the point of view of ethics (in the same Britain, when the law was adopted, 100 parliamentarians nevertheless spoke out against it).

Side effects

In Russia, tens of thousands of IVF attempts are carried out annually (in the Kulakov Center alone - 1.5 thousand attempts over the past year). For almost three decades of IVF practice, we have accumulated statistics that doctors keep on children born from a test tube. Unfortunately, it is disappointing: children born as a result of IVF are much more likely to get sick and are born with health problems.

For example, they are two and a half times more likely to have a heart defect, four times more likely to be born with a cleft lip, four times more likely to be born with atresia (absence) of the esophagus or rectum. Thus, we need to be aware that progress has a downside. It allows the birth of children in situations where this is no longer possible in the traditional sense. However, as crude as it may sound, these children have a worse genetic inheritance than those born naturally. And if they also begin to resort to IVF, then even more physiologically weaker children will be born, and so on and so forth. This must be understood.

Big hopes

All the promises that are given in the publication of the next breakthrough discovery in medicine in the field of genetics and embryology are never fully fulfilled. The most striking example is the decoding of the human genome, about which there have been so many conversations.

The human genome contains about 3 billion base pairs, which echoes the total cost of the project of the same name - $ 3 billion. Thanks to the deciphering of the genome in DNA, it is possible to distinguish a special pattern of nucleotide arrangement, characteristic of a particular nationality. The work of the project has significantly advanced forensic medicine and forensic science. Not to mention the impact on genetics, the diagnosis of hereditary diseases. Initially it was assumed that the human genome contains about 100 thousand genes, but today their number is estimated at 25-30 thousand. Active genes are contained in 5-8 percent of the human genome, the rest is sometimes called "junk DNA": these are repeated sequences of nucleotides whose functions have not been established by scientists. However, in 2012, the international ENCODE project published studies stating that up to 80 percent of "junk DNA" perform regulatory functions in relation to gene activity.

If we mean by deciphering the genome the determination of the nucleotide sequence, that is, the compilation of a long, long text of 3 billion letters, then this work has long been completed. But scientists have yet to understand the whole meaning of what has been deciphered.

There have been huge - perhaps somewhat exaggerated - expectations for deciphering the human genome, which is understandable given the scale of the project and the role DNA plays in molecular processes. Treating a number of diseases by replacing a damaged piece of DNA with a normal one is breathtaking. But it is naive to expect the appearance of super-effective drugs and magic pills 15 years after mankind has deciphered the genome. Man flew into space almost 55 years ago, but during this time he was unable to populate the moon. Does this mean that the space program is ineffective?

The development of microbiology can be considered a good result for such a short period: the genomes of the causative agents of a number of diseases have been deciphered, including drug-resistant tuberculosis. Understanding the genomic structure of pathogenic bacteria is important for both diagnosis and vaccine development. But the main breakthrough was the creation of the CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing technique (the Crisper system). With the help of Crisper, you can cut out a specific DNA fragment in a cell and insert another one in its place, that is, just replace the defective nucleotide sequence with a healthy one.

The birth of a child in a test tube from three parents is the latest announced achievement in this area, and other studies are going on in parallel with it, including in Russia. All of them are also aimed at improving intracellular manipulations and reducing the number of errors. But is it possible in the end to eliminate these errors? It's unlikely to happen. IVF will always have some negative consequences, because these consequences are an integral part of any intervention in the natural course of things.