DISTRIBUTION OF THE TURKIC LANGUAGES

Modern Turkic languages

General information. Name options. Genealogical information. Spreading. Linguistic information. General dialect composition. sociolinguistic information. Communicative-functional status and rank of the language. Degree of standardization. Educational and pedagogical status. Type of writing. Brief periodization of the history of the language. Intrastructural phenomena caused by external language contacts.

Turkey - 55 million
Iran - from 15 to 35 million
Uzbekistan - 27 million
Russia - 11 to 16 million
Kazakhstan - 12 million
China - 11 million
Azerbaijan - 9 million
Turkmenistan - 5 million
Germany - 5 million
Kyrgyzstan - 5 million
Caucasus (without Azerbaijan) - 2 million
EU - 2 million (excluding UK, Germany and France)
Iraq - from 500 thousand to 3 million
Tajikistan - 1 million
USA - 1 million
Mongolia - 100 thousand
Australia - 60 thousand
Latin America (excluding Brazil and Argentina) - 8 thousand people
France - 600 thousand
Great Britain - 50 thousand
Ukraine and Belarus - 350 thousand people
Moldova - 147,500 (Gagauz)
Canada - 20 thousand
Argentina - 1 thousand
Japan - 1 thousand
Brazil - 1 thousand
Rest of the world - 1.4 million

DISTRIBUTION OF THE TURKIC LANGUAGES

Turkic languages- a family of related languages ​​of the supposed Altaic macrofamily, widely spoken in Asia and Eastern Europe. The area of ​​distribution of the Turkic languages ​​extends from the basin of the Kolyma River in Siberia in the southwest to the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The total number of speakers is more than 167.4 million people.

The area of ​​distribution of the Turkic languages ​​extends from the basin
R. Lena in Siberia southwest to the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
In the north, the Turkic languages ​​are in contact with the Uralic languages, in the east, with the Tungus-Manchurian, Mongolian and Chinese languages. In the south, the area of ​​distribution of the Turkic languages ​​is in contact with the area of ​​distribution of Iranian, Semitic, and in the west - with the area of ​​distribution of Slavic and some other Indo-European (Greek, Albanian, Romanian) languages. The bulk of the Turkic-speaking peoples of the former Soviet Union live in the Caucasus, the Black Sea region, the Volga region, Central Asia, and Siberia (western and eastern). In the western regions of Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine and in the south of Moldova, Karaites, Crimean Tatars, Krymchaks, Urums and Gagauz live.
The second area of ​​settlement of the Turkic-speaking peoples is connected with the territory of the Caucasus, where Azerbaijanis, Kumyks, Karachays, Balkars, Nogais and Trukhmens (Stavropol Turkmens) live.
The third geographical area of ​​settlement of the Turkic peoples is the Volga region and the Urals, where Tatars, Bashkirs and Chuvashs are represented.
The fourth Turkic-speaking area represents the territory of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, where Uzbeks, Uighurs, Kazakhs, Karakalpaks, Turkmens, and Kirghiz live. The Uighurs are the second largest Turkic-speaking nation living outside the CIS. They constitute the main population of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of the PRC. In China, along with the Uighurs, there are Kazakhs, Kirghiz, Uzbeks, Tatars, Salars, Saryg-Yugurs.

The fifth Turkic-speaking area is represented by the Turkic peoples of Siberia. In addition to the West Siberian Tatars, this zonal group is made up of Yakuts and Dolgans, Tuvans and Tofalars, Khakasses, Shors, Chulyms, and Altaians. Outside the former Soviet Union, the bulk of the Turkic-speaking peoples live in Asia and Europe. The first place in terms of number is occupied by
Turks. Turks live in Turkey (more than 60 million people), Cyprus, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Bulgaria, Greece, Macedonia, Romania, France, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Switzerland. In total, over 3 million Turks live in Europe.

Based on the current geographical distribution, all modern Turkic peoples are divided into four areal-regional groups. Areal-regional distribution (from west to east) of modern Turkic languages: Group I - South Caucasus and Western Asia - 120 million people: (south-western Turkic languages ​​- Azerbaijani, Turkish); Group II - North Caucasus, Eastern Europe - 20 million people: (North-Western Turkic languages ​​- Kumyk, Karachay - Balkar, Nogai, Crimean Tatar, Gagauz, Karaim, Tatar, Bashkir, Chuvash): Group III - Central Asia - 60 million people: (southeastern Turkic languages ​​- Turkmen, Uzbek, Uighur, Karakalpak, Kazakh, Kyrgyz); Group IV - Western Siberia - 1 million people: (North-Eastern Turkic languages ​​- Altai, Shor, Khakass, Tuvan, Tofalar, Yakut). The cultural vocabulary of modern Turkic languages ​​will be considered by me in five semantic groups: flora, fauna, climate, landscape and economic activity. The analyzed vocabulary is divided into three groups: common Turkic, areal and borrowed. Common Turkic words are those that are recorded in ancient and medieval monuments, and also have parallels in most modern Turkic languages. Areal-regional vocabulary - words known to one or more modern Turkic peoples living on the same common or adjacent territories. Borrowed vocabulary - Turkic words of foreign origin. The vocabulary of the language reflects and preserves the national specificity, however, in all languages, to some extent, there are borrowings. As you know, foreign borrowings occupy an important place in replenishing and enriching the vocabulary of any language.

Tatars and Gagauz also live in Romania, Bulgaria, Macedonia. The proportion of Turkic-speaking peoples in Iran is large. Along with Azerbaijanis, Turkmens, Qashqais, Afshars live here. Turkmens live in Iraq. In Afghanistan - Turkmens, Karakalpaks, Kazakhs, Uzbeks. Kazakhs and Tuvans live in Mongolia.

Scientific discussions on the belonging and correlation of languages ​​and their dialects within the Turkic languages ​​do not cease. So, for example, in his classic fundamental scientific work "The Dialect of the West Siberian Tatars" (1963), G. Kh. Akhatov presented materials on the territorial settlement of the Tobol-Irtysh Tatars in the Tyumen and Omsk regions. Having subjected the phonetic system, lexical composition and grammatical structure to a comprehensive comprehensive analysis, the scientist came to the conclusion that the language of the Siberian Tatars is one independent dialect, it is not divided into dialects and is one of the oldest Turkic languages. However, initially A. The Bogoroditsky language of the Siberian Tatars belonged to the West Siberian group of Turkic languages, where he also included the Chulym, Baraba, Tobol, Ishim, Tyumen and Turin Tatars.

Problems

Drawing boundaries within many Turkic, especially the smallest, associations is difficult:

· the differentiation of language and dialect is difficult - in fact, the Turkic languages ​​at all stages of division reveal the situation of a diasystem, a dialect continuum, a language cluster and / or a language complex, at the same time there are various ethnolects that are treated as independent languages;

· are described as dialects of one language belonging to different idiom subgroups (Turkic mixed languages).

For some classification units - historical and modern - there is very little reliable information. So, practically nothing is known about the historical languages ​​of the Ogur subgroup. About the Khazar language, it is assumed that it was close to the Chuvash language - see Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary, M. 1990 - and Bulgar proper. The information is based on the testimony of the Arab authors al-Istakhri and Ibn-Khaukal, who noted the similarity of the languages ​​of the Bulgars and the Khazars, on the one hand, and the dissimilarity of the Khazar language to the dialects of the other Turks, on the other. The belonging of the Pecheneg language to the Oguz ones is assumed on the basis of the ethnonym itself. Pechenegs, comparable with the Oguz designation of a brother-in-law baʤanaq. Of the modern ones, the Syrian-Turkmen, local dialects of Nogai, and especially the Eastern Turkic, Fuyu-Kyrgyz, for example, are poorly described.

The question of the relationship between the selected groups of the Turkic branch proper, including the relationship of modern languages ​​with the languages ​​of runic monuments, remains ambiguous.

Some languages ​​were discovered relatively recently (Fuyu-Kyrgyz, for example). The Khalaj language was discovered by G. Dörfer in the 1970s. and identified in 1987 with the argu mentioned by his predecessors (Baskakov, Melioransky, etc.).

It is also worth mentioning the points of discussion that arose due to the mistakes made:

· disputes about the genetic affiliation of the ancient Bulgarian language: the discussion is initially meaningless, since the language that became the basis of the modern Chuvash belongs to the most ancient Ogur branch, and the literary language of the Tatars and Bashkirs is historically a regional variant of the Turkic language;

Identification of the Gagauz language (including its archaic Balkan variant) with the Pecheneg language: the Pecheneg language had completely died out by the Middle Ages, while the modern Gagauz language, in essence, is nothing more than a continuation of the Balkan dialects of the Turkish language;

· attributing the Salar language to the Sayan; the Salar language is certainly Oghuz, but as a result of contacts it has many borrowings from the Siberian area, including features of consonantism and the word adıg instead of aju"bear" and jalaŋadax"barefoot" on a par with the original ajax"leg" (cf. Tat. "yalanayak");

· attributing the Saryg-Yugur language to Karluk (including the interpretation as a dialect of the Uighur) - the similarity is the result of language contacts;

· mixing of various idioms, for example, Kumandin and Tubalar, Middle Chulym and Lower Chulym dialects when describing the so-called Kuerik and Ketsik dialects or historical Orkhon-Uyghur and Old Uyghur.

Dolgan/Yakut

Altai / Teleut / Telenginsky / Chalkan (Kuu, Lebedinsky)

Altai-Oirot

Tofalar - Karagas

information from the book by A. N. Kononov "History of the study of Turkic languages ​​in Russia. Pre-October period" (Second ed., supplemented and corrected, Leningrad, 1982). The list shows that both those with a long history (Turkish, Turkmen, Tatar, Crimean Tatar, Kumyk) and those with a small history (Altaic, Chuvash, Tuvan, Yakut) are named languages. Consequently, the authors paid more attention to the literary form, to its functional completeness and prestige, the idea of ​​the dialect is shaded here, in the shade.

As can be seen from the list, non-written forms of a number of peoples (Baraba, Tatar, Tobolsk, Shor, Sayan, Abakan) are also named adverbs or dialects, but also written forms that are relatively young (Nogai, Karakalpak, Kumyk) and rather old (Turkmen, Crimean Tatar, Uzbek, Uighur, Kyrgyz).

The use of terms indicates that the authors were primarily attracted by the non-written state of languages ​​and the relative similarity with it of written literary languages ​​with underdeveloped functions and styles. In this case, both previous methods of naming were combined, indicating both the insufficient development of dialectology and the subjectivity of the authors. The variegation of the names shown above reflected the complex path of the formation of the Turkic languages ​​and the no less complex nature of its perception and interpretation by scientists and teachers.

By 30-40 years. 20th century in theory and practice, the terms literary language - the system of its dialects - are fully fixed. At the same time, the struggle between the terms for the entire family of languages ​​(Turkic and Turkic-Tatars), which went on during the 13th-19th centuries, ends. By the 40s. 19th century (1835), the terms Türk/Turkic acquired a generic, and Turk/Turkish - specific status. This division was also fixed in English practice: turkiс "Turkic and turkish "Turkish" (but in Turkish practice turk "Turkish" and "Turkic", French turc "Turkish" and "Turkic", German turkisch "Turkish" and "Turkic") According to information from the book "Turkic Languages" in the "Languages ​​of the World" series, there are 39 Turkic languages ​​in total.This is one of the largest language families.

Taking the possibility of understanding and verbal communication as a scale for measuring the proximity of languages, the Turkic languages ​​are divided into close ones (tur. -az. -gag.; nog-karkalp. -kaz.; tat. -bashk.; tuv. -tof.; yak. - long), relatively distant (Turkish - Kaz.; Az. - Kirg.; Tat. - Tuv.) and quite distant (Chuv. - other languages; Yakuts. - other languages). There is a clear pattern in this gradation: differences in the Turkic languages ​​increase from west to east, but the opposite is also true: from east to west. This rule is a consequence of the history of the Turkic languages.

Of course, the Turkic languages ​​did not immediately reach such a level. This was preceded by a long path of development, as comparative historical studies show. The Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences has compiled a volume with group reconstructions that will make it possible to trace the development of modern languages. In the late period of the Proto-Turkic language (III century BC), dialect groups of various chronological levels are formed in it, which gradually break up into separate languages. There were more differences between groups than between members within groups. This general difference persisted later in the development of specific languages. The separated languages, being unwritten, were kept and developed in folklore, until their generalized forms were developed and the social conditions for the introduction of writing were ripe. By the VI-IX centuries. n. e. for some Turkic tribes and their associations, these conditions arose, after which runic writing appeared (VII-XII centuries). Monuments of runic writing name a number of large Turkic-speaking tribes and their unions: turk, uyyur, qipcaq, qirgiz. It was in this linguistic environment on the basis of the Oguz and Uighur languages ​​that the first written literary language was formed, serving many ethnic groups in a wide geographical area from Yakutia to Hungary. A scientific position has been put forward that different systems of signs (more than ten types) existed in different periods, leading to the concept of various regional variants of the runic literary language, which served the social needs of the Turkic ethnic groups. The literary form did not necessarily coincide with the dialect basis. Thus, among the ancient Uighurs of Turfan, the dialect form differed from the written literary morphology and vocabulary, among the Yenisei Kyrgyz, the written language is known from epitaphs (this is a d-language), and the dialect form, according to reconstructions, is similar to the group of z-languages ​​(Khakas, Shor, Sarygyugur, Chulym-Turkic), on which the epic "Manas" began to take shape.

The stage of the runic literary language (VII-XII centuries) was replaced by the stage of the ancient Uyghur literary language (IX-XVIII centuries), then they were replaced by the Karakhanid-Uyghur (XI-XII centuries) and, finally, Khorezm-Uyghur (XIII-XIV centuries) literary languages ​​that served other Turkic ethnic groups and their state structures.

The natural course of development of the Turkic languages ​​was disrupted by the Mongol conquest. Some ethnic groups have disappeared, others have been displaced. On the arena of history in the XIII-XIV centuries. new ethnic groups appeared with their own languages, which already had literary forms or developed them in the presence of social conditions up to the present day. The Chagatai literary language (XV-XIX centuries) played an important role in this process.

With the appearance of modern Turkic peoples on the historical arena before their formation into separate nations, the Chagatai language (together with other old languages ​​- Karakhanid-Uighur, Khorezm-Turkic and Kypchak) was used as a literary form. Gradually, it absorbed local folk elements, which led to the emergence of local variants of the written language, which, unlike the Chagatai as a whole, can be called the literary language of the Turks.

Several variants of the Turki are known: Central Asian (Uzbek, Uighur, Turkmen), Volga (Tatar, Bashkir); Aral-Caspian (Kazakh, Karakalpak, Kyrgyz), Caucasian (Kumyk, Karachay-Balkarian, Azerbaijani) and Asia Minor (Turkish). From this moment on, we can talk about the initial period of modern Turkic national literary languages.

The origins of the Turkic variants date back to different periods: among the Turks, Azerbaijanis, Uzbeks, Uighurs, Tatars - to the XIII-XIV centuries, among the Turkmens, Crimean Tatars, Kirghiz and Bashkirs - to the XVII-XVIII centuries.

In the 20-30s in the Soviet state, the development of the Turkic languages ​​took a new direction: the democratization of the old literary languages ​​(they found modern dialectal foundations) and the creation of new ones. By the 30-40s of the XX century. Scripts were developed for the Altai, Tuvan, Khakass, Shor, and Yakut languages. In the future, the position of the Russian language, which strengthened in the social sphere, restrained the process of the functional development of the Turkic languages, but, of course, they could not stop it. The natural growth of literary languages ​​continued. In 1957, the Gagauz people received the written language. The development process continues to this day: in 1978, writing was introduced among the Dolgans, in 1989 - among the Tofalars. The Siberian Tatars are preparing to introduce writing in their native language. Each nation decides this issue for itself.

The development of the Turkic languages ​​from an unwritten form to a written one with a system of dialects subordinate to it did not change significantly either in the Mongolian or in the Soviet periods, despite negative factors.

The changing situation in the Turkic world also concerns the new reform of the alphabetic systems of the Turkic languages ​​that has begun. For the seventieth anniversary of the twentieth century. this is the fourth total change of alphabets. Probably only the Turkic nomadic perseverance and strength can withstand such a social burden. But why waste it for no apparent social or historical reason - I thought so in 1992 during the international conference of Turkologists in Kazan. In addition to purely technical shortcomings in the current alphabets and spellings, nothing else was indicated. But for the reform of alphabets, social needs are in the foreground, and not just wishes based on any particular moment.

At the present time the social reason for the alphabetic substitution was indicated. This is the leading position of the Turkish people, their language in the modern Turkic world. Since 1928, Latin writing has been introduced in Turkey, reflecting the uniform system of the Turkish language. Naturally, the transition to the same Latin basis is also desirable for other Turkic languages. This is also a force that strengthens the unity of the Turkic world. The spontaneous transition to the new alphabet has begun. But what does the initial stage of this movement show? It shows the complete inconsistency of the actions of the participants.

In the 1920s, the reform of the alphabet in the RSFSR was directed by a single body - the Central Committee of the New Alphabet, which, on the basis of serious scientific development, compiled unified systems of alphabets. At the end of the 30s, the next wave of alphabetic change was carried out by the forces of the Turkic peoples themselves without any coordination among themselves due to the lack of a coordinating body. This inconsistency has not yet been resolved.

It is impossible to ignore the discussion of the problem of the second alphabet for the Turkic languages ​​of countries with Muslim culture. For the western Muslim part of the Turkic world, the eastern (Arabic) writing is 700 years old, and the European one is only 70 years old, i.e. 10 times less time. A huge classical heritage has been created on the Arabic script, which is especially valuable right now for the independently developing Turkic peoples. Can this wealth be neglected? It is possible if we stop considering ourselves Turks. It is impossible to translate the great achievements of the past culture into a transcription code. It is easier to master the Arabic script and read the old texts in the original. For philologists, the study of Arabic writing is mandatory, but for the rest, it is optional.

The presence of not one, but several alphabets in one people is not an exception either now or in past times. The ancient Uighurs, for example, used four different writing systems, and history has not preserved any complaints about this.

Together with the problem of the alphabet, the problem of the general fund of Turkic terminology arises. The task of generalizing the Turkic terminological systems was not solved in the Soviet Union, remaining the exclusive right of the national republics. The unification of terminologies is closely related to the level of development of sciences, which is reflected in the concepts and their names. If the levels are the same, then the unification process is not particularly difficult. In the case of differences in levels, the reduction of particular terminologies into something unified seems to be extremely difficult.

Now we can only raise the question of preliminary measures, in particular, the discussion of this topic at scientific associations. These associations can be built along professional lines. As, for example, the association of Turkologists: linguists, literary critics, historians, etc. The association (commission) of Turkologists-linguists discusses the state of, say, grammatical theory in various parts of the Turkic world and makes recommendations for the development and unification of its terminology, if possible . In this case, the review of the state of science itself is very useful. To recommend now the terminology of a language to all is to start from the end.

One more direction draws attention, the scientific and social significance of which for the Turkic world is obvious. This is a search for common roots, symbolizing the unified character of the Turkic world. Common roots lie in the lexical treasury of the Turks, in folklore, especially in epic works, customs and beliefs, folk crafts and art, etc. - in a word, it is necessary to compose a corpus of Turkic antiquities. Other nations are already doing this. Of course, it needs to be thought through, a program drawn up, and executors and leaders of the work must be found and trained. It will probably require a small temporary Institute of Turkic Antiquities. Publication of the results and their implementation in practice will be an effective means of preserving and strengthening the Turkic world. All these measures, taken together, will pour into the old formula of Islmail Gasprinsky - in language, thought, deeds, unity - new content.

The national lexical fund of the Turkic languages ​​is rich in native words. But the existence of the Soviet Union radically changed the functional nature and basic terminographic norms, as well as the alphabetical system of the Turkic languages. This is evidenced by the opinion of the scientist A.Yu. Musorina: “The languages ​​of the peoples of the former USSR can be considered as a linguistic union. The long coexistence of these languages ​​within the framework of one multinational state, as well as the colossal pressure on them from the Russian language, led to the appearance in them of common features at all levels of their language system. So, for example, in the Udmurd language, under the influence of Russian, the sounds [f], [x], [c], which were previously absent in it, appeared in the Komi-Permyak language, many adjectives began to take shape with the suffix “-ovoi” (Russian –ovy, -ova, - new), and in Tuva new types of complex sentences that did not exist before were formed. The influence of the Russian language at the lexical level was especially strong. Almost all socio-political and scientific terminology in the languages ​​of the peoples of the former USSR is borrowed from the Russian language or formed under its strong influence. The only exceptions in this regard are the languages ​​of the peoples of the Baltic States - Lithuanian, Latvian, Estonian. In these languages, the corresponding terminological systems were formed in many respects even before the entry of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia into the USSR.

inological character of the Turkish language. The dictionary of the Turkic languages ​​contained a rather large percentage of Arabisms and Iranianisms, Russisms, which, again for political reasons, were fought in Soviet times along the lines of terminological construction and open Russification. International terms and words denoting new phenomena of the economy, everyday life, ideology, were directly borrowed from Russian or from other languages ​​through the press and other media, first into speech, and then fixed in the language and replenished not only Turkic speech and terminology, but also vocabulary in general. At present, the term system of the Turkic languages ​​is intensively replenished with borrowed words and international terms. The main share of borrowed words and neologisms are the terms of European countries, including a large number of English words. However, the equivalents of these borrowed words in the Turkic languages ​​are ambiguous. As a result, the national coloring, spelling and orthoepic norms of the lexical fund of the native speakers of these languages ​​are violated. The solution of this problem is possible thanks to the joint efforts of scientists from Turkic-speaking countries. In particular, I would like to note that the creation of a unified electronic terminological database of the Turkic peoples and the national corpus of the Turkic world and its constant updating will contribute to the effective achievement of the goal.

The languages ​​of these minority peoples are included in the "Red Book of the Languages ​​of the Peoples of Russia" (M., 1994). The languages ​​of the peoples of Russia are different in their legal status (state, official, interethnic, local) and the scope of their social functions in different spheres of life. In accordance with the Constitution of 1993, the state language of the Russian Federation throughout its territory is Russian.

Along with this, the Fundamental Law of the Russian Federation recognizes the right of the republics to establish their own state languages. Currently, 19 constituent republics of the Russian Federation have adopted legislative acts that secure the status of national languages ​​as state languages. Simultaneously with the title language of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation, which is recognized as the state language in this republic, and Russian as the state language of the Russian Federation, in some subjects other languages ​​are also given the status of the state language. So, in Dagestan, in accordance with the Constitution of the Republic (1994), 8 out of 13 literary and written languages ​​are declared state; in the Karachay-Cherkess Republic - 5 languages ​​(Abaza, Kabardino-Circassian, Karachay-Balkarian, Nogai and Russian); 3 state languages ​​are declared in the legislative acts of the republics of Mari El and Mordovia.

The adoption of legislative acts in the language sphere is intended to increase the prestige of national languages, to help expand the areas of their functioning, create conditions for the preservation and development, as well as to protect linguistic rights and linguistic independence of the individual and the people. The functioning of the state languages ​​of the Russian Federation is determined in the most significant areas of communication, such as education, printing, mass communication, spiritual culture, and religion. The education system of the Russian Federation presents the distribution of functions in the following levels: preschool institutions - the language is used as a means of education and / or studied as a subject; national schools - the language is used as a medium of instruction and/or taught as a subject; national schools - the language is used as a medium of instruction and / or studied as a subject; mixed schools - they have classes with the Russian language of instruction and classes with other languages ​​of instruction, languages ​​are taught as a subject. All languages ​​of the peoples of the Russian Federation, which have a written tradition, are used in upbringing and education with varying intensity and at various levels of the educational system.

Turkic languages ​​in the Russian Federation and a multifaceted, complex and urgent problem of the policy of the Russian state in the linguistic sphere of culture and national relations in general. The fate of the languages ​​of the minority Turkic ethnic groups in Russia is a problem from among the critical, screaming, firefighters: a few years can turn out to be fatal, the consequences are irreversible.
Scientists include the following Turkic languages ​​among the disappearing ones:
- Dolgansky
- Kumandin
- Tofalar
- Tubalar
- Tuva-Todzha
- chelkan
- Chulym
- Shor

Dolgany
Dolgans (self-name - Dolgan, tya-kihi, Sakha) - people in Russia, mainly in the Taimyr Autonomous Okrug of the Krasnoyarsk Territory. Believers - Orthodox). The Dolgan language is the language of the Yakut subgroup of the Turkic group of the Altaic languages. The core of the Dolgan nationality was formed as a result of the interaction of various ethnic groups: Evenks, Yakuts, Russian peasants from Zatundra, etc. The main language of communication between these groups was the Yakut language, which spread among the Tungus clans in the territory of Yakutia at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries. In general historical terms, it can be assumed that the Dolgan language retained elements of the Yakut language from the period of the first waves of their migration to the territory of present-day Yakutia and gradually pushed further by subsequent waves to the northwest. The Tungus clans, which later became the core of the Dolgan people, were in contact with representatives of this wave of Yakuts and, having adopted their language, migrated with them through the territory that later became their joint homeland. The process of formation of the nationality and its language continued on the Taimyr Peninsula in the course of mutual influence of various groups of Evenks, Yakuts, Russians and their languages. They were united by the same way of life (life, household), geographical location and, mainly, the language, which by that time had become the main one in communication between them. Therefore, the modern Dolgan language, while remaining grammatically Yakut at its core, contains many elements of the languages ​​of those peoples that made up the new ethnic group. This is especially reflected in the vocabulary. Dolgan (dulgaan) is the name of one of the Evenki clans that assimilated into the new ethnic group. This name is currently used in the Russian version to refer to all representatives of this nationality. The self-name of the main Dolgan group (Khatanga region) is haka (cf. Yakut. Sakha), as well as tya kihite, tyalar - a man from the tundra, tundra people (western Dolgans). In this case, the Turkic word tya (tau, tuu, too, etc.) - "wooded mountain" in the Dolgan language acquired the meaning of "tundra". The number of Dolgans according to their censuses in the Taimyr Autonomous Okrug and Anabarsky District of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) 1959, 1970, 1979, 1989 and the preliminary results of the 2002 census in the Russian Federation is as follows: 3932 (updated data), 4877, 5053, 6929, 7000 people. According to the 1979 census, the highest percentage of those who consider their native language to be their nationality is 90 percent, in subsequent years there was a slight decrease in this indicator. At the same time, the number of Dolgans who are fluent in Russian is increasing. The Russian language is used in the official business sphere, in the press, in communication with people of other nationalities, and often in everyday life. Some of the Dolgans read books and magazines in the Yakut language, they can communicate and correspond, although they experience lexical, grammatical, and spelling difficulties.
If the independence of the Dolgans as a nationality is an indisputable fact, then the definition of the status of their language as an independent language or as a dialect of the Yakut language still causes controversy. The Tungus clans, due to the prevailing historical circumstances, having switched to the language of the Yakuts, did not assimilate among them, but, having fallen into special conditions, in the process of interaction with various ethnic groups, began to form as a new people. "Special conditions" were remoteness from the bulk of the Yakuts, a different way of life and other cultural and economic changes in the life of the Dolgans in Taimyr. For the first time, the idea of ​​independence of the Dolgan language was expressed in 1940 at the defense of E.I. Ubryatova's PhD thesis "The language of the Norilsk Dolgans". In recent years, this idea has been increasingly confirmed in the works of researchers of this language. We are talking about the isolation of the Dolgan language, which at a certain stage of its development and functioning was a dialect of the Yakut language, as a result of a long isolated development, a change in the way of life of the people, as well as a geographical and administrative branch. In the future, the Dolgan language increasingly moved away from the literary Yakut language, which was based on the dialects of the central regions of Yakutia.
It is important to emphasize that the question of the independence of the Dolgan language, like other similar languages, cannot be resolved only from a linguistic point of view. When determining the linguistic affiliation of a dialect, it is not enough to appeal only to structural criteria - it is also necessary to refer to the signs of a sociological order: the presence or absence of a common literary written language, mutual understanding between speakers, ethnic self-awareness of the people (corresponding assessment of their language by its speakers). The Dolgans do not consider themselves either Yakuts or Evenks and recognize their language as a separate, different language. This is motivated by difficulties in mutual understanding between the Yakuts and Dolgans and the inability of the latter to use the Yakut literary language in cultural everyday life; creating their own script and teaching the Dolgan language in schools (the impossibility of using the Yakut school literature); publication of fiction and other literature in the Dolgan language. It follows from this that the Dolgan language, even from a linguistic point of view, remaining, as it were, a dialect of the Yakut language, taking into account the complex of historical, socio-cultural, sociological factors, is an independent language. Writing in the Dolgan language was created only in the late 70s of the twentieth century. In 1978, the Cyrillic alphabet was approved, taking into account the peculiarities of the phonemic structure of the language, as well as Russian and Yakut graphics. Currently, this language is used mainly in everyday communication. The functioning of the language in print, on the radio begins. The mother tongue is taught in elementary school. The Dolgan language is taught at the Russian State Pedagogical University named after A.I. Herzen to students - future teachers.
Of course, there are many problems in the preservation and development of the language. First of all, it is the teaching of the native language to children at school. There is a question about the insufficient methodological equipment of teachers, about the small amount of literature in the Dolgan language. It is necessary to intensify the publication of newspapers and books in this language. Of no small importance is the upbringing of children in the family in the spirit of respect for their people, traditions and native language.

Kumandins
The Kumandins (Kumandivandy, Kuvanty, Kuvandyg/Kuvandykh) are one of the Turkic-speaking ethnic groups that make up the population of the Altai Republic.
The Kumandin language is a dialect of the Altaic language or, according to a number of Turkologists, a separate language in the Khakass subgroup of the Uighur-Oguz group of Turkic languages. The number of Kumandins according to the 1897 census was 4092 people, in 1926 - 6334 people, they were not taken into account in subsequent censuses; according to preliminary data from the 2002 census in the Russian Federation - 3,000 people. The Kumandins live most compactly within the Altai Territory, in the Kemerovo Region. In the ethnogenesis of the Kumandins, as well as other tribes living in Altai, the ancient Samoyed, Ket and Turkic tribes participated. The ancient influences of various Turkic dialects are still felt today, causing disputes about the linguistic qualification of the Kumandin language. The language of the Kumandins in a number of phonetic features is close to the Shor language and partly to the Khakass. It also retained specific features that distinguish it among the Altaic dialects and even among the Turkic languages. The Kumandins of the middle and older generations use their native Kumandin in colloquial speech, the young people prefer the Russian language. Almost all Kumandins speak Russian, some consider it their native language. Writing for the Altai language was developed on the basis of one of its southern dialects - Teleut in the middle of the 19th century by the missionaries of the Altai Spiritual Mission. In this form, it was also distributed among the Kumandins. In the early 1930s, an attempt was made to teach the Kumandins in their native language. In 1933 "Kumandy-primer" was published. However, that was all. In the early 1990s, teaching in schools was in Russian. As a subject, the Altai literary language was taught, which, being different in terms of dialect base, is noticeably influenced by the local speech of the Kumandins.

soyots
Soyots are one of the few ethnic groups whose representatives live compactly in the territory of the Okinsky district of the Republic of Buryatia. According to the 1989 census, their number ranged from 246 to 506 people.
By the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Buryatia dated April 13, 1993, the Soyot National Village Council was formed on the territory of the Okinsky District of the Republic of Buryatia. In connection with the growth of national self-consciousness, on the one hand, and the possibility of obtaining an official legal status, on the other hand, the Soyots applied to the Russian parliament with a request to be recognized as an independent ethnic group, while more than 1,000 citizens filed an application with a request to change their nationality and identify them as Soyots . According to V.I. Rassadin, the Soyots of Buryatia (natives of Khusugul in Mongolia) about 350-400 years ago broke away, according to legend, from the Tsaatans, who had the same clans (Khaasuut, Onkhot, Irkit) as the Soyots. The Soyot language is included in the Sayan subgroup of the Siberian Turkic languages, which combines the languages ​​of Russian Tuvans, Mongolian and Chinese Monchaks, Tsengel Tuvans (steppe group) and the languages ​​of Tofalars, Tsaatans, Uyghur-Uriankhais, Soyts (taiga group). The Soyot language is unwritten, in its development it experienced a significant influence of the Mongolian language, at the present stage - Buryat and Russian. Now the Soyots have almost completely lost their language: it is remembered only by representatives of the older generation. The Soyot language has been studied very poorly.

Teleuts
The Teleuts are an indigenous population living along the Sema River (Shebalinsky District of the Altai Republic), in the Chumysh District of the Altai Territory and along the Big and Small Bachat Rivers (Novosibirsk Region). Their self-name - tele"ut / tele"et - goes back to an ancient ethnonym common among the inhabitants of Altai. Like other ethnic groups of the region, the Teleuts were formed on the basis of the Turkization of local tribes of Samoyed or Ket origin. The study of toponymy showed that in addition to these components, there was a strong influence of Mongol-speaking tribes on the territory. However, the strongest layer belongs to the Turkic languages, and some of the Turkic names correlate with the ancient Turkic, as well as with the Kyrgyz, Tuvan, Kazakh and other neighboring Turkic languages. According to its linguistic features, the Teleut language belongs to the Kyrgyz-Kypchak group of the eastern branch of the Turkic languages ​​(N.A. Baskakov), therefore, it has features that unite it with the Kyrgyz language. The Altaic language has a relatively long history of fixation and study of its dialects. Recordings of individual Altaic words began from the moment the Russians entered Siberia. During the first academic expeditions (XVIII century), lexicons appeared and materials on the language were collected (D.-G. Messerschmidt, I. Fischer, G. Miller, P. Pallas, G. Gmelin). Academician V.V. Radlov made a great contribution to the study of the language. languages". The Teleut language also came to the attention of scientists and was described in the well-known "Grammar of the Altai language" (1869). It was with this dialect that the linguistic activity of the Altai Spiritual Mission, which opened in 1828, turned out to be connected. Its outstanding figures V.M.Verbitsky, S.Landyshev, M.Glukharev-Nevsky developed the first Russian-based Altaic alphabet and created a written language based on the Teleut dialect. The Altai grammar was one of the first and very successful examples of the functionally oriented grammars of the Turkic languages; it has not lost its significance to this day. V.M.Verbitsky compiled the "Dictionary of the Altai and Aladag dialects of the Turkic language" (1884). The Teleut dialect was the first to acquire a script developed by missionaries, which included the letters of the Russian alphabet, supplemented by special signs for specific Altaic phonemes. It is characteristic that with some minor changes this script exists to this day. The modified missionary alphabet was used until 1931, when a Latinized alphabet was introduced. The latter in 1938 was again replaced by writing on a Russian basis). In modern information conditions and under the influence of the school, there is a leveling of dialect differences that recede before the norms of the literary language. On the other hand, there is an offensive of the Russian language, which is spoken by the majority of Altaians. In 1989, 65.1 percent of Altaians indicated that they were fluent in Russian, while only 1.9 percent of the total number spoke the language of their nationality, but 84.3 percent consider Altai their native language (89.6 percent in the Altai Republic). The small population of Teleuts is subject to the same linguistic processes as the rest of the indigenous population of the Altai Republic. Apparently, the sphere of use of the dialect form of the language will remain in family communication and in single-national production teams engaged in traditional ways of managing.

Tofalars
Tofalars (self-name - Tofa, outdated name Karagasy) - the people living mainly on the territory of two village councils - Tofalar and Verkhnegutarsky, which are part of the Nizhneudinsky district of the Irkutsk region). Tofalaria - the area where the Tofalars live, is entirely located in the mountains covered with larch and cedar. The historical ancestors of the Tofalars were the Ket-speaking Kott, Assan and Arin tribes living in the Eastern Sayans and the Sayan Samoyeds, with one of whom, the Kamasins, the Tofalars were in close contact until recently. The substratum of these tribes is evidenced by Samoyedic and especially Ket-lingual toponymy, preserved in Tofalaria. Notable elements revealed in the phonetics and vocabulary of the Tofalar language also speak of the Ket substrate. The Turkization of the aboriginal population of the Sayan occurred in the ancient Turkic time, as evidenced by the Oguz and especially the ancient Uyghur elements preserved in the modern language. Long and deep economic and cultural contacts with the medieval Mongols, and later with the Buryats, were also reflected in the Tofalar language. Since the 17th century, contacts with the Russians began, which especially intensified after 1930 with the transfer of the Tofalars to a settled way of life. According to censuses, there were 543 Tofalars in 1851, 456 in 1882, 426 in 1885, 417 in 1927, 586 in 1959, 620 in 1970, and 620 in 1979. -m - 763 (at that time 476 people lived in Tofalaria itself), in 1989 - 731 people; according to preliminary data from the 2002 census in the Russian Federation, the number of Tofalars is 1000 people. Until 1929-1930, the Tofalars led an exclusively nomadic lifestyle and did not have stationary settlements. Their traditional occupation has long been the breeding of domestic reindeer, which are used for riding and transporting goods in packs. Other areas of economic activity were hunting for meat and fur animals, fishing, and harvesting wild edible plants. The Tofalars had not previously been engaged in agriculture, but already living settled, they learned from the Russians to grow potatoes and vegetables. Before the transition to settled life, they lived in a tribal system. After 1930, the villages of Alygzher, Nerkha and Verkhnyaya Gutara were built on the territory of Tofalaria, in which Tofalars were settled, Russians also settled here; since then, the positions of the Russian language have been strengthened among the Tofalars. The Tofalar language is included in the Sayan group of Turkic languages, which combines with it the Tuvan language, the languages ​​of the Mongolian Uighurokhuryankhais and Tsaatans, as well as the Monchaks of Mongolia and China. Comparison in general Turkological terms shows that the Tofalar language, sometimes by itself, sometimes together with other Turkic languages ​​of the Sayan-Altai and Yakut, retains a number of archaic features, some of which are comparable with the ancient Uyghur language. The study of phonetics, morphology and vocabulary of the Tofalar language showed that this language is an independent Turkic language, having both specific features and features that unite it either with all Turkic languages ​​or with their separate groups.
The Tofalar language has always been unwritten. However, its fixation was carried out in scientific transcription in the middle of the 19th century by the famous scientist M.A. Kastren, and at the end of the 19th century by N.F. Kaftanov. Writing was created only in 1989 on a Russian graphic basis. Since 1990, the teaching of the Tofalar language began in the primary grades of Tofalar schools. A primer and a book for reading (1st and 2nd grade) were compiled ... During the nomadic life, the Tofalars had active linguistic ties only with the Kamasinians living next to them, the Tuvans-Todzhans, the Lower Sudin and Okinsky Buryats. At that time, the linguistic situation among them was characterized by the monolingualism of the overwhelming majority of the population and the Tofalar-Russian-Buryat trilingualism among a separate part of the adult population. With the beginning of settled life, the Russian language began to firmly enter the everyday life of the Tofalars. School education was conducted in Tofalaria only in Russian. The native language was gradually pushed into the sphere of domestic communication, and even then between older people. In 1989, 43 percent of the total number of Tofalars named the Tofalar language as their native language, and only 14 people (1.9 percent) were fluent in it. After the creation of writing and the beginning of teaching the Tofalar language in primary school, that is, after receiving state support, - writes the researcher of the Tofalar language V.I. Rassadin, - the interest in the Tofalar language, in the Tofalar culture among the population began to increase. The language began to be taught at school not only by Tofalar children, but also by students of other nationalities. People began to talk more in their native language. Thus, the preservation and development of the Tofalar language currently depends on the degree of state support, the provision of schools with educational and visual aids in the native language, the financial security of publications in the Tofalar language and the training of teachers of the native language, as well as the level of development of habitual forms of management in places of residence. Tofalars.

Tuvans-Todzhans
Tuvans-Todzhans are one of the small ethnic groups that make up the modern Tuvan nation; they live compactly in the Todzhinsky district of the Republic of Tuva, whose name sounds "todyu". The Todzhans call themselves Ty'va/Tuga/Tukha, the ethnonym dates back to ancient times.
The language of the Tuvan-Todzhans is a dialect of the Tuvan language in the Uyghur-Tyukuy subgroup of the Uyghur-Oguz group of Turkic languages. Located in North-Eastern Tuva, Todzha occupies an area of ​​4.5 thousand square kilometers, these are powerful mountain ranges in the Eastern Sayan Mountains, overgrown with taiga, and intermountain areas are swampy, originating in mountain spurs of the river flow through the wooded Todzha basin. The flora and fauna of this region is rich and diverse. Living in a mountainous area isolated the Todzhans from the rest of the inhabitants of Tuva, and this could not but affect the peculiarities of the language. Samoyeds, Kets, Mongols and Turks took part in the ethnogenesis of the Tuvan-Todzhans, as evidenced by the tribal names preserved by the modern inhabitants of Todzha, and ethnonyms common to the listed peoples, rich material is also provided by local toponymy. The Turkic ethnic component turned out to be decisive and, as various sources testify, by the 19th century the population of Todzha was Turkicized. However, in the material and spiritual culture of Tuvans-Todzhans, elements are preserved that go back to the cultures of these ethnic groups-substrates.
At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, Russian peasants moved to Todzhi. Their descendants continue to live next to the Todzhans; representatives of the older generation often speak the Tuvan language. A new wave of Russians is associated with the development of natural resources, most of them are specialists - engineers, agronomists, livestock specialists, doctors. In 1931, according to the census, there were 2,115 indigenous people (568 households) in the Todzhinsky district. In 1994, D.M. Nasilov, a researcher of the language and culture of Tuvan-Todzhans, claimed that there were about 6,000 of them. According to preliminary data from the 2002 census, there are 36,000 Tuvans-Todzhans in the Russian Federation (!). The Todzha language is under active pressure from the literary language, the norms of which penetrate through the school (the Tuvan language is taught at school from preparatory to 11th grade inclusive), the media, and fiction. In Tuva, up to 99 percent of Tuvans consider their language to be their mother tongue, this is one of the highest rates in the Russian Federation of the preservation of the national language as a mother tongue. However, on the other hand, the stability of traditional forms of economic management in the region also contributes to the preservation of dialect features in Todzha: breeding deer and cattle, hunting for fur-bearing animals, fishing, that is, communication in the conditions of a familiar economic environment, and young people are also actively involved in labor activity. , which ensures linguistic continuity. Thus, the language situation among the Todzha Tuvans should be assessed as one of the most prosperous among other small ethnic groups in the Siberian region. Well-known figures of Tuvan culture emerged from the environment of Tuvans-Todzhans. The works of the writer Stepan Saryg-ool reflected not only the life of the Todzhans, but also the peculiarities of the language of the latter.

Chelkans
Chelkans - one of the Turkic-speaking ethnic groups that make up the population of the Altai Republic, are also known under the outdated name Lebedintsy or Lebedinsky Tatars. The language of the Chelkans belongs to the Khakas subgroup of the Uighur-Oguz group of Turkic languages. Chelkans are the indigenous population of the Altai Mountains, living along the Swan River and its tributary, the Baigol. Their self-name is Chalkandu / Shalkandu, as well as Kuu-Kizhi (Kuu - "swan", from which the ethnonym "swans" and the hydronym river Swan originated from the Turkic). Tribes of Samoyedic and Kett origin, as well as Turkic tribes, whose Turkic language finally defeated foreign components, took part in the formation of the Chelkans, as well as other ethnic groups of modern Altaians. The mass resettlement of the Turks to the Altai took place in the ancient Turkic times.
The Chelkans are a small ethnic group influenced by the Altai ethnic groups, as well as living around a significant Russian-speaking population. The Chelkans are settled in the villages of Kurmach-Baigol, Suranash, Maly Chibechen and Itkuch. In the scientific literature of the mid-1990s, it was stated that there were about 2,000 Chelkans; according to preliminary data from the 2002 census, there are 900 of them in the Russian Federation.
The first fixation of the language of the Chelkants (Lebedints) belongs to Academician V.V. Radlov, who was in Altai in 1869-1871. In our time, N.A. Baskakov made a great contribution to the study of the Altai language and its dialects. In his works, he used his own expeditionary materials, as well as all previously recorded texts and materials on these dialects. The toponymy of the region of residence of the Chelkans and Altaians is generally described in the fundamental work of O.T. Molchanova "Structural types of Turkic toponyms of the Altai Mountains" (Saratov, 1982) and in the "Toponymic Dictionary of the Altai Mountains" (Gorno-Altaisk, 1979; more than 5400 entries). All Chelkans are bilingual and have a good command of Russian, which has already become native for many. Therefore, the Chelkan dialect, narrowing the scope of its functioning, remains alive only in family communication and in small production teams engaged in traditional types of economic activity.

Chulyms
Chulyms are an indigenous population living in the taiga area in the Chulym River basin, along its middle and lower reaches, within the Tomsk Region and the Krasnoyarsk Territory. Chulym language (Chulym-Turkic) - the language of the Khakass subgroup of the Uighur-Oguz group of languages, is closely related to the Khakass and Shor languages; this is the language of a small Turkic ethnic group, known under the outdated names of the language of the Chulym / Melet / Melets Tatars, it is now represented by two dialects. The entry of the Chulym language into the Turkic-speaking area of ​​Siberia testifies to the genetic links of the ancestors of its speakers, participating in the Turkization of the aboriginal population of the Chulym River basin, with the tribes speaking the Turkic languages ​​of the entire Sayan-Altai. Since 1946, the systematic study of the Chulym language began by A.P. Dulzon, a prominent Tomsk linguist: he visited all the Chulym villages and described the phonetic, morphological and lexical system of this language and gave a description of its dialects, especially the Lower Chulym. A.P. Dulzon’s research was continued by his student R.M. Biryukovich, who collected voluminous new factual material, gave a detailed monographic description of the structure of the Chulym language with special attention to the Middle Chulym dialect and showed its place among other languages ​​of the Turkic-speaking areas of Siberia. According to preliminary data from the 2002 census, there are 700 Chulyms in the Russian Federation. Chulyms came into contact with Russians starting from the 17th century, early Russian lexical borrowings were adapted according to the laws of Turkic phonetics: porta - gate, agrat - garden, start - beads, but now all Chulyms are fluent in Russian. The Chulym language contains a known number of common Turkic words that have preserved the ancient sound image and semantics; there are relatively few Mongolian borrowings in it. The terms of kinship and the system of time reference, toponymic names are peculiar. Favorable factors for the language of the Chulyms are their well-known isolation and the preservation of their usual forms of management.

Shors
The Shors are a small Turkic-speaking ethnic group living in the northern foothills of the Altai, in the upper reaches of the Tom River and along its tributaries - the Kondome and the Mrass, within the Kemerovo region. Self-name - shor; in ethnographic literature, they are also known as the Kuznetsk Tatars, black Tatars, Mrastsy and Kondomtsy or Mrassky and Kondomsky Tatars, Maturians, Abalars or Abins. The term "blinders" and, accordingly, the "Shor language" was introduced into scientific circulation by Academician V.V. Radlov at the end of the 19th century; he united the tribal groups of the "Kuznetsk Tatars" under this name, distinguishing them from the neighboring Teleuts, Kumandins, Chelkans and Abakan Tatars, related in language, but the term "Shor language" was finally established only in the 30s of the twentieth century. The Shor language is the language of the Khakass subgroup of the Uighur-Oguz group of Turkic languages, which indicates its relative proximity to other languages ​​of this subgroup - Khakass, Chulym-Turkic and northern dialects of the Altai language. The ethnogenesis of the modern Shors involved ancient Ob-Ugric (Samoyed) tribes, later Turkified, and groups of ancient Turks-tyukyu and tele. The ethnic heterogeneity of the Shors and the influence of a number of substratum languages ​​determined the presence of noticeable dialectal differences in the Shor language and the difficulty of forming a single spoken language. From 1926 to 1939, on the territory of the current Tashtagol, Novokuznetsk, Mezhdurechensk districts, Myskovsky, Osinnikovsky and part of the Novokuznetsk city councils, there was the Gorno-Shorsky national region. By the time the national region was created, the Shors lived compactly here and made up about 70 percent of its population. In 1939, the national autonomy was abolished and a new administrative-territorial division was carried out. Recently, due to the intensive industrial development of Gornaya Shoria and the influx of a foreign-speaking population, the density of the indigenous population has catastrophically decreased: for example, in the city of Tashtagol there are 5 percent of Shors, in Mezhdurechensk - 1.5 percent, in Myski - 3.4, and most of the Shors live in cities and towns - 73.5 percent, in rural areas - 26.5 percent. The total number of Shors, according to the 1959-1989 censuses, slightly increased: 1959 - 15,274 people, 1970 - 16,494, 1979 - 16,033, 1989 - 16,652 (15,745 of them on the territory of the Russian Federation). According to preliminary data from the 2002 census, there are 14,000 Shors in Russia. In recent decades, the number of people fluent in their native Shor language has also decreased: in 1989 there were only 998 people - 6 percent. About 42 percent of the Shors called Russian their native language, 52.7 percent are fluent in it, that is, about 95 percent of modern ethnic Shors speak Russian either as their native language or as a second language: the absolute majority has become bilingual. In the Kemerovo region, the number of Shor speakers in the total population was about 0.4 percent. The Russian language has an increasing influence on the Shor language: lexical borrowings are increasing, the phonetic system and syntactic structure are changing. By the time of the first fixation in the middle of the 19th century, the language of the Shors (Kuznetsk Tatars) was a conglomeration of Turkic dialects and dialects, however, the dialectal differences were not completely overcome in the oral communication of the Shors. The prerequisites for the creation of a national Shor language arose during the organization of the Gorno-Shorsky national region, when national statehood appeared on a single ethnic territory with compact settlement and economic integrity. The literary language was formed on the basis of the Lower Ras Goror of the Mras dialect. It published textbooks, works of original literature, translations from the Russian language, a newspaper was published. The Shor language was studied in elementary and secondary schools. In 1936, for example, out of 100 primary schools, 33 were national, out of 14 secondary schools - 2, by 1939, out of 209 schools in the district, 41 were national. In the village of Kuzedeevo, a pedagogical college was opened for 300 places, 70 of them were assigned to the Shors. A local intelligentsia was created - teachers, writers, cultural workers, and the all-Shor national self-consciousness was strengthened. In 1941, the first large scientific grammar of the Shor language was published, written by N.P. Dyrenkova, earlier she published the volume of "Shor Folklore" (1940). After the abolition of the Gorno-Shorsky national region, the pedagogical college and the editorial office of the national newspaper were closed, rural clubs, teaching in schools and office work began to be conducted only in Russian; the development of the literary Shor language was thus interrupted, as was its impact on local dialects. The history of the written language of the Shor language has more than 100 years: in 1883 the first book in the Shor language was published in Cyrillic - "The Sacred History", in 1885 the first primer was compiled. Until 1929, writing was based on the Russian script with the addition of signs for specific Turkic phonemes. From 1929 to 1938, a Latin-based alphabet was used. After 1938, they returned again to Russian graphics. Now textbooks and books for reading for elementary school, textbooks for grades 3-5 have been published, Shor-Russian and Russian-Shor dictionaries are being prepared, works of art are being created, folklore texts are being printed. A department of the Shor language and literature was opened at the Novokuznetsk Pedagogical Institute (the first enrollment was in 1989). However, parents do not seek to teach their children their native language. In a number of villages, folklore ensembles have been created, the main task of which is to preserve songwriting and revive folk dances. Public national movements (Association of the Shor people, the Shoria society and others) raised the issue of reviving traditional types of management, restoring national autonomy, solving social problems, especially for residents of taiga villages, and creating ecological zones.

The Russian Empire was a multinational state. The language policy of the Russian Empire was colonial in relation to other peoples and assumed the dominant role of the Russian language. Russian was the language of the majority of the population and, consequently, the state language of the empire. Russian was the language of administration, court, army and interethnic communication. The coming of the Bolsheviks to power meant a turn in language policy. It was based on the need to meet the needs of everyone to use their mother tongue and master the heights of world culture in it. The policy of equal rights for all languages ​​found wide support among the non-Russian population of the outskirts, whose ethnic self-consciousness has grown significantly during the years of revolutions and civil war. However, the implementation of the new language policy, begun in the twenties and also called language building, was hindered by the insufficient development of many languages. Few of the languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR then had a literary norm and writing. As a result of the national delimitation of 1924, based on the "right of nations to self-determination" proclaimed by the Bolsheviks, autonomous national formations of the Turkic peoples appeared. The creation of national-territorial boundaries was accompanied by a reform of the traditional Arabic script of the Muslim peoples. IN

Linguistically, traditional Arabic writing is inconvenient for Turkic languages, since short vowels are not indicated when writing. The reform of the Arabic script solved this problem easily. In 1924, a modified version of the Arabic alphabet was developed for the Kyrgyz language. However, even the reformed Arabic alphabet had a number of shortcomings, and most importantly, it preserved the isolation of the Muslims of the USSR from the rest of the world and thereby contradicted the idea of ​​world revolution and internationalism. Under these conditions, a decision was made on the gradual Latinization of all Turkic languages, as a result of which, in 1928, a translation into the Turkic-Latin alphabet was carried out. In the second half of the thirties, a departure from the previously proclaimed principles in language policy is planned and the active introduction of the Russian language into all spheres of language life begins. In 1938, compulsory study of the Russian language was introduced in the national schools of the Union republics. And in 1937-1940. The written language of the Turkic peoples is being translated from Latin into Cyrillic. The change in the language course, first of all, was due to the fact that the real language situation of the twenties and thirties contradicted the ongoing language policy. The need for mutual understanding in a single state required a single state language, which could only be Russian. In addition, the Russian language had a high social prestige among the peoples of the USSR. Mastering the Russian language facilitated access to information and knowledge, contributed to further growth and career. And the translation of the languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR from Latin to Cyrillic, of course, facilitated the study of the Russian language. Moreover, by the end of the thirties, the mass expectations of a world revolution were replaced by the ideology of building socialism in one country. The ideology of internationalism gave way to the politics of nationalism

In general, the consequences of the Soviet language policy on the development of the Turkic languages ​​were rather contradictory. On the one hand, the creation of literary Turkic languages, the significant expansion of their functions and the strengthening of their status in society, achieved in the Soviet era, can hardly be overestimated. On the other hand, the processes of linguistic unification, and later Russification, contributed to the weakening of the role of Turkic languages ​​in social and political life. Thus, the language reform of 1924 led to the break of the Muslim tradition, which nourished ethnicity, language, culture based on Arabic script. Reform 1937-1940 protected the Turkic peoples from the growing ethno-political and socio-cultural influence of Turkey and thereby contributed to cultural unification and assimilation. Russification policy was carried out until the early nineties. However, the actual language situation was much more complicated. The Russian language dominated in the management system, large-scale industry, technology, natural sciences, that is, where non-indigenous ethnic groups predominated. As for most Turkic languages, their functioning extended to agriculture, secondary education, the humanities, fiction and the media.

a language family that spans from Turkey in the west to Xinjiang in the east and from the coast of the East Siberian Sea in the north to Khorasan in the south. Speakers of these languages ​​live compactly in the CIS countries (Azerbaijanis - in Azerbaijan, Turkmens - in Turkmenistan, Kazakhs - in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz - in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbeks - in Uzbekistan; Kumyks, Karachays, Balkars, Chuvashs, Tatars, Bashkirs, Nogais, Yakuts, Tuvans, Khakass, Mountain Altaians - in Russia; Gagauz - in the Transnistrian Republic) and beyond its borders - in Turkey (Turks) and China (Uighurs). At present, the total number of speakers of Turkic languages ​​is about 120 million. The Turkic family of languages ​​is part of the Altai macrofamily.

The very first (3rd century BC, according to glottochronology) the Bulgar group separated from the Proto-Turkic community (in other terminology - R-languages). The only living representative of this group is the Chuvash language. Separate glosses are known in written monuments and borrowings in neighboring languages ​​from the medieval languages ​​of the Volga and Danube Bulgars. The rest of the Turkic languages ​​(“Common Turkic” or “Z-languages”) are usually classified into 4 groups: “Southwestern” or “Oghuz” languages ​​(main representatives: Turkish, Gagauz, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Afshar, Coastal Crimean Tatar) , "North-Western" or "Kipchak" languages ​​(Karaim, Crimean Tatar, Karachay-Balkarian, Kumyk, Tatar, Bashkir, Nogai, Karakalpak, Kazakh, Kyrgyz), "South-Eastern" or "Karluk" languages ​​(Uzbek, Uighur), "North-Eastern" languages ​​- a genetically heterogeneous group, including: a) the Yakut subgroup (Yakut and Dolgan languages), which separated from the common Turkic, according to glottochronological data, before its final collapse, in the 3rd century BC. AD; b) the Sayan group (Tuvan and Tofalar languages); c) the Khakass group (Khakas, Shor, Chulym, Saryg-Yugur); d) Gorno-Altai group (Oirot, Teleut, Tuba, Lebedinsky, Kumandin). The southern dialects of the Gorno-Altai group are close in a number of parameters to the Kyrgyz language, constituting with it the "central-eastern group" of the Turkic languages; some dialects of the Uzbek language clearly belong to the Nogai subgroup of the Kypchak group; Khorezm dialects of the Uzbek language belong to the Oguz group; part of the Siberian dialects of the Tatar language is approaching the Chulym-Turkic.

The earliest deciphered written monuments of the Turks date back to the 7th century. AD (steles written in runic script found on the Orkhon River in northern Mongolia). Throughout their history, the Turks used the Turkic runic (ascending, apparently, to the Sogdian script), Uighur script (later passed from them to the Mongols), Brahmi, Manichaean script, and Arabic script. At present, writings based on Arabic, Latin and Cyrillic are common.

According to historical sources, information about the Turkic peoples for the first time emerges in connection with the appearance of the Huns on the historical arena. The steppe empire of the Huns, like all known formations of this kind, was not monoethnic; judging by the linguistic material that has come down to us, there was a Turkic element in it. Moreover, the dating of the initial information about the Huns (in Chinese historical sources) is 4-3 centuries. BC. – coincides with the glottochronological definition of the time of the allocation of the Bulgar group. Therefore, a number of scientists directly connect the beginning of the movement of the Huns with the separation and departure to the west of the Bulgars. The ancestral home of the Turks is placed in the northwestern part of the Central Asian plateau, between the Altai mountains and the northern part of the Khingan Range. From the southeast side they were in contact with the Mongol tribes, from the west their neighbors were the Indo-European peoples of the Tarim Basin, from the northwest - the Ural and Yenisei peoples, from the north - the Tungus-Manchus.

By the 1st century BC. separate tribal groups of the Huns moved to the territory of modern South Kazakhstan, in the 4th century. AD the invasion of the Huns to Europe begins, by the end of the 5th century. In Byzantine sources, the ethnonym "Bulgars" appears, denoting a confederation of tribes of Hunnic origin, which occupied the steppe between the Volga and Danube basins. In the future, the Bulgarian confederation is divided into the Volga-Bulgarian and Danube-Bulgarian parts.

After the breakaway of the "Bulgars", the rest of the Turks continued to remain in the territory close to their ancestral home until the 6th century. AD, when, after defeating the Zhuan-Zhuan confederation (part of the Xianbei, presumably the proto-Mongols who defeated and ousted the Huns in their time), they formed the Turkic confederation, which dominated from the middle of the 6th to the middle of the 7th century. over a vast territory from the Amur to the Irtysh. Historical sources do not provide information about the moment of separation from the Turkic community of the ancestors of the Yakuts. The only way to connect the ancestors of the Yakuts with some historical messages is to identify them with the Kurykans of the Orkhon inscriptions, which belonged to the Teles confederation absorbed by the Turks. They were localized at that time, apparently, to the east of Baikal. Judging by the references in the Yakut epic, the main advance of the Yakuts to the north is associated with a much later time - the expansion of the empire of Genghis Khan.

In 583, the Turkic confederation was divided into Western (with its center in Talas) and Eastern Turks (in other words, the “blue Turks”), the center of which was the former center of the Turkic empire Kara-Balgasun on Orkhon. Apparently, the disintegration of the Turkic languages ​​into the western (Oghuz, Kipchak) and eastern (Siberia; Kirghiz; Karluk) macrogroups is connected with this event. In 745, the Eastern Turks were defeated by the Uighurs (localized to the southwest of Lake Baikal and presumably at first non-Turks, but by that time already Turkicized). Both the Eastern Turkic and the Uyghur states experienced a strong cultural influence of China, but the Eastern Iranians, primarily Sogdian merchants and missionaries, had no less influence on them; in 762 Manichaeism became the state religion of the Uighur empire.

In 840 the Uyghur state centered on the Orkhon was destroyed by the Kyrkiz (from the upper reaches of the Yenisei; presumably also at first not a Turkic, but by this time a Turkicized people), the Uyghurs fled to Eastern Turkestan, where in 847 they founded a state with the capital Kocho (in the Turfan oasis). From here the main monuments of the ancient Uighur language and culture have come down to us. Another group of fugitives settled in what is now the Chinese province of Gansu; their descendants may be Saryg-Yugurs. The entire northeastern group of Turks, except for the Yakuts, can also go back to the Uyghur conglomerate, as part of the Turkic population of the former Uyghur Khaganate, which moved northward, deeper into the taiga, already at the time of the Mongol expansion.

In 924, the Kyrgyz were ousted from the Orkhon state by the Khitans (presumably Mongols in language) and partly returned to the upper reaches of the Yenisei, partly moved westward, to the southern spurs of the Altai. Apparently, the formation of the central-eastern group of Turkic languages ​​can be traced back to this South Altai migration.

The Turfan state of the Uyghurs existed for a long time next to another Turkic state dominated by the Karluks, a Turkic tribe that originally lived to the east of the Uyghurs, but by 766 moved to the west and subjugated the state of the Western Turks, whose tribal groups spread in the steppes of Turan (Ili-Talas region , Sogdiana, Khorasan and Khorezm; at the same time, Iranians lived in the cities). At the end of the 8th c. Karluk Khan Yabgu converted to Islam. The Karluks gradually assimilated the Uighurs who lived to the east, and the Uighur literary language served as the basis for the literary language of the Karluk (Karakhanid) state.

Part of the tribes of the Western Turkic Khaganate were Oghuz. Of these, the Seljuk confederation stood out, which at the turn of the 1st millennium AD. migrated west through Khorasan to Asia Minor. Apparently, the linguistic consequence of this movement was the formation of the southwestern group of Turkic languages. Approximately at the same time (and, apparently, in connection with these events) there was a mass migration to the Volga-Ural steppes and Eastern Europe of tribes representing the ethnic basis of the current Kypchak languages.

The phonological systems of the Turkic languages ​​are characterized by a number of common properties. In the field of consonantism, restrictions on the occurrence of phonemes in the position of the beginning of a word, a tendency to weaken in the initial position, restrictions on the compatibility of phonemes are common. At the beginning of the primordial Turkic words are not found l,r,n, š ,z. Noisy plosives are usually contrasted by strength/weakness (Eastern Siberia) or deafness/voicedness. At the beginning of a word, the opposition of consonants in terms of deafness/voicedness (strength/weakness) exists only in the Oghuz and Sayan groups, in most other languages ​​at the beginning of the word, labials are voiced, dental and back-lingual are deaf. Uvular in most Turkic languages ​​are allophones of velar with back vowels. The following types of historical changes in the consonant system are classified as significant. a) In the Bulgar group in most positions there is a voiceless fricative lateral l coincided with l in sound in l; r And r in r. In other Turkic languages l gave š , r gave z, l And r preserved. In relation to this process, all Turkologists are divided into two camps: some call it rotacism-lambdaism, others - zetacism-sigmatism, and this is statistically associated, respectively, with their non-recognition or recognition of the Altaic kinship of languages. b) Intervocalic d(pronounced as interdental fricative ð) gives r in Chuvash t in Yakut d in the Sayan languages ​​and Khalaj (an isolated Turkic language in Iran), z in the Khakass group and j in other languages; respectively, talking about r-,t-,d-,z- And j- languages.

The vocalism of most Turkic languages ​​is characterized by synharmonism (the likening of vowels within one word) in row and roundness; the vowel system is reconstructed for the Proto-Turkic as well. Synharmonism disappeared in the Karluk group (as a result of which the opposition of velar and uvular was phonologized there). In the New Uighur language, a kind of synharmonism is again built - the so-called "Uyghur umlaut", the leading of wide unrounded vowels before the next i(which ascends both to the front *i, and to the rear * ï ). In Chuvash, the whole system of vowels has changed a lot, and the old vowel harmony has disappeared (its trace is the opposition k from a velar in an anterior word and x from the uvular in the back row word), but then a new synharmonism lined up in a row, taking into account the current phonetic characteristics of vowels. The opposition of vowels by longitude/shortness that existed in the Proto-Turkic was preserved in the Yakut and Turkmen languages ​​(and in a residual form in other Oghuz languages, where the voiceless consonants sounded after the old long vowels, as well as in the Sayan languages, where short vowels before voiceless consonants receive the sign of "pharyngealization") ; in other Turkic languages ​​it disappeared, but in many languages ​​long vowels reappeared after intervocalic voiced omissions (Tuvinsk. so"tub" *sagu etc.). In Yakut, primary wide long vowels have turned into ascending diphthongs.

In all modern Turkic languages ​​- a power stress, which is morphonologically fixed. In addition, tonal and phonation oppositions were noted for the Siberian languages, however, they were not fully described.

From the point of view of morphological typology, the Turkic languages ​​belong to the agglutinative, suffixal type. At the same time, if the Western Turkic languages ​​are a classic example of agglutinative ones and have almost no fusion, then the Eastern ones, like the Mongolian languages, develop a powerful fusion.

The grammatical categories of the name in the Turkic languages ​​are number, belonging, case. The order of affixes is: base + aff. numbers + aff. accessories + case aff. Plural form h. is usually formed by adding an affix to the stem -lar(in Chuvash -sem). In all Turkic languages, the plural form hours is marked, the form of units. hours - unmarked. In particular, in the generic meaning and with numerals, the singular form is used. numbers (kumyk. men at gerdyum " I (actually) saw horses."

Case systems include: a) the nominative (or main) case with a zero indicator; the form with a zero case indicator is used not only as a subject and a nominal predicate, but also as an indefinite direct object, an adjectival definition and with many postpositions; b) accusative case (aff. *- (ï )g) - case of a certain direct object; c) genitive case (aff.) - the case of a concrete-referential applied definition; d) dative-directive (aff. *-a/*-ka); e) local (aff. *-ta); e) ablative (aff. *-tin). The Yakut language rebuilt the case system along the lines of the Tungus-Manchu languages. Usually there are two types of declension: nominal and possessive-nominal (declension of words with affixes of the 3rd person; case affixes take a slightly different form in this case).

The adjective in the Turkic languages ​​differs from the noun in the absence of inflectional categories. Receiving the syntactic function of the subject or object, the adjective acquires all the inflectional categories of the noun.

Pronouns change by case. Personal pronouns are available for 1 and 2 persons (* bi/ben"I", * si/sen"you", * bir"we", *sir"you"), in the third person demonstrative pronouns are used. Demonstrative pronouns in most languages ​​distinguish three degrees of range, for example, bu"this", Su"this remote" (or "this" when indicated by the hand), ol"that". Interrogative pronouns distinguish between animate and inanimate ( Kim"who" and ne"what").

In the verb, the order of affixes is as follows: the stem of the verb (+ aff. voice) (+ aff. negation (- ma-)) + aff. inclination/view-temporal + aff. conjugations for persons and numbers (in brackets - affixes that are not necessarily present in the word form).

Voices of the Turkic verb: real (without indicators), passive (*- il), return ( *-in-), mutual ( * -ïš- ) and causative ( *-t-,*-ir-,*-tyr- and some etc.). These indicators can be combined with each other (cum. ger-yush-"see", gyor-yush-dir-"to force to see" jaz-hole-"force to write" yaz-hole-yl-"to be compelled to write").

The conjugated forms of the verb fall into proper verbal and improper verbal forms. The former have personal indicators that go back to the affixes of belonging (except for 1 lit. plural and 3 lit. plural). These include the past categorical tense (aorist) in the indicative mood: verb stem + indicator - d- + personal indicators: bar-d-im"I went" oqu-d-u-lar"they read"; means a completed action, the fact of the implementation of which is beyond doubt. This also includes the conditional mood (verb stem + -sa-+ personal indicators); desired mood (verb stem + -aj- + personal indicators: pra-Turkic. * bar-aj-im"let me go" * bar-aj-ik"let's go"); imperative mood (pure stem of the verb in 2 l singular and stem + in 2 l. pl. h.).

Non-proper verbal forms are historically gerunds and participles in the function of the predicate, decorated with the same indicators of predicability as nominal predicates, namely, postpositive personal pronouns. For example: other Turkic. ( ben)beg ben"I'm Bek" ben anca tir ben"I say so", lit. "I say so-I." Present participles (or simultaneity) are distinguished (stem + -a), indefinite future (base + -VR, where V– vowel of different quality), precedence (stem + -ip), desired mood (base + -g aj); participle perfect (stem + -g an), behind-the-eyes, or descriptive (stem + -mus), definite-future tense (stem + ) and many others. etc. The affixes of gerunds and participles do not carry collateral oppositions. Verbs with predicative affixes, as well as gerunds with auxiliary verbs in proper and improper verbal forms (numerous existential, phase, modal verbs, verbs of motion, verbs "take" and "give") express a variety of committed, modal, directional and accommodative meanings, cf. Kumyk. bara bulgaiman"Looks like I'm going" go- dep. simultaneity become- dep. desired -I), ishley goremen"I am going to work" ( work- dep. simultaneity look- dep. simultaneity -I), language"sleep (for yourself)" ( write- dep. precedence take). Various verbal names of action are used as infinitives in various Turkic languages.

From the point of view of syntactic typology, the Turkic languages ​​belong to the languages ​​of the nominative system with the prevailing word order "subject - object - predicate", preposition of the definition, preference for postpositions over prepositions. There is a folded design – with the indicator of membership at the defined word ( at bas-i"horse head", lit. "the horse's head is hers"). In a composing phrase, usually all grammatical indicators are attached to the last word.

The general rules for the formation of subordinating phrases (including sentences) are cyclical: any subordinating combination can be inserted as one of the members into any other, and the connection indicators are attached to the main member of the built-in combination (the verb form turns into the corresponding participle or gerund). Wed: Kumyk. ak sakal"white beard" ak sakal-ly gishi"white-bearded man" booth-la-ny ara-son-yes"between the booths" booth-la-ny ara-son-da-gye yol-well orta-son-da"in the middle of the path passing between the booths", sen ok atganing"you shot an arrow" sen ok atganyng-ny gerdyum"I saw you shoot an arrow" ("you shot an arrow - 2 l. singular - vin. case - I saw"). When a predicative combination is inserted in this way, one often speaks of the "Altai type of a complex sentence"; indeed, the Turkic and other Altaic languages ​​show a clear preference for such absolute constructions with the verb in the impersonal form over subordinate clauses. The latter, however, are also used; for connection in complex sentences, allied words are used - interrogative pronouns (in subordinate clauses) and correlative words - demonstrative pronouns (in main sentences).

The main part of the vocabulary of the Turkic languages ​​is native, often having parallels in other Altaic languages. Comparison of the general vocabulary of the Turkic languages ​​allows us to get an idea of ​​the world in which the Turks lived in the period of the collapse of the Proto-Turkic community: the landscape, fauna and flora of the southern taiga in Eastern Siberia, on the border with the steppe; metallurgy of the early Iron Age; economic structure of the same period; transhumance cattle breeding based on horse breeding (with the use of horse meat for food) and sheep breeding; farming in a subsidiary function; the big role of developed hunting; two types of dwellings - winter stationary and summer portable; quite developed social dismemberment on a tribal basis; apparently, to a certain extent, a codified system of legal relations in active trade; a set of religious and mythological concepts characteristic of shamanism. In addition, of course, such “basic” vocabulary as the names of body parts, verbs of movement, sensory perception, etc. is being restored.

In addition to the original Turkic vocabulary, modern Turkic languages ​​use a large number of borrowings from languages ​​with whose speakers the Turks have ever come into contact. These are, first of all, Mongolian borrowings (there are many borrowings from the Turkic languages ​​in the Mongolian languages, there are also cases when a word was borrowed first from the Turkic languages ​​into Mongolian, and then back, from the Mongolian languages ​​into Turkic, cf. other Uighur. irbi, Tuvan. irbis"bars" > mong. irbis > Kirg. irbis). There are many Tungus-Manchurian borrowings in the Yakut language, in Chuvash and Tatar they are borrowed from the Finno-Ugric languages ​​of the Volga region (as well as vice versa). A significant part of the “cultural” vocabulary has been borrowed: in the Old Uyghur there are many borrowings from Sanskrit and Tibetan, primarily Buddhist terminology; in the languages ​​of the Muslim Turkic peoples there are many Arabicisms and Persianisms; in the languages ​​of the Turkic peoples that were part of the Russian Empire and the USSR, there are many Russian borrowings, including internationalisms like communism,tractor,political economy. On the other hand, there are many Turkic borrowings in Russian. The earliest are borrowings from the Danube-Bulgarian language into Old Church Slavonic ( book, drop"idol" - in the word temple“pagan temple”, etc.), who came from there to Russian; there are also borrowings from Bulgar into Old Russian (as well as into other Slavic languages): serum(Common Turk. *jogurt, bulg. *suvart), bursa"Persian silk fabric" (Chuvashsk. porcin* bariun Middle-Pers. *aparesum; trade of pre-Mongol Rus with Persia went along the Volga through the Great Bulgar). A large amount of cultural vocabulary was borrowed into Russian from the late medieval Turkic languages ​​in the 14th–17th centuries. (during the time of the Golden Horde and even more later, during the time of brisk trade with the surrounding Turkic states: ass, pencil, raisin,shoe, iron,Altyn,arshin,coachman,Armenian,ditches,dried apricots and many others. etc.). In later times, the Russian language borrowed from Turkic only words denoting local Turkic realities ( snow leopard,ayran,kobyz,sultana,village,elm). Contrary to a common misconception, there are no Turkic borrowings among Russian obscene (obscene) vocabulary, almost all of these words are Slavic in origin.

Turkic languages. - In the book: Languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR, vol. II. L., 1965
Baskakov N.A. Introduction to the study of Turkic languages. M., 1968
Comparative-historical grammar of Turkic languages. Phonetics. M., 1984
Comparative-historical grammar of Turkic languages. Syntax. M., 1986
Comparative-historical grammar of Turkic languages. Morphology. M., 1988
Gadzhieva N.Z. Turkic languages. – Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1990
Turkic languages. - In the book: Languages ​​of the world. M., 1997
Comparative-historical grammar of Turkic languages. Vocabulary. M., 1997

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TURKIC LANGUAGES, a language family that spans from Turkey in the west to Xinjiang in the east and from the coast of the East Siberian Sea in the north to Khorasan in the south. Speakers of these languages ​​live compactly in the CIS countries (Azerbaijanis - in Azerbaijan, Turkmens - in Turkmenistan, Kazakhs - in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz - in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbeks - in Uzbekistan; Kumyks, Karachays, Balkars, Chuvashs, Tatars, Bashkirs, Nogais, Yakuts, Tuvans, Khakass, Mountain Altaians - in Russia; Gagauz - in the Transnistrian Republic) and beyond its borders - in Turkey (Turks) and China (Uighurs). At present, the total number of speakers of Turkic languages ​​is about 120 million. The Turkic family of languages ​​is part of the Altai macrofamily.

The very first (3rd century BC, according to glottochronology) the Bulgar group separated from the Proto-Turkic community (in other terminology - R-languages). The only living representative of this group is the Chuvash language. Separate glosses are known in written monuments and borrowings in neighboring languages ​​from the medieval languages ​​of the Volga and Danube Bulgars. The rest of the Turkic languages ​​(“Common Turkic” or “Z-languages”) are usually classified into 4 groups: “Southwestern” or “Oghuz” languages ​​(main representatives: Turkish, Gagauz, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Afshar, Coastal Crimean Tatar) , "North-Western" or "Kipchak" languages ​​(Karaim, Crimean Tatar, Karachay-Balkarian, Kumyk, Tatar, Bashkir, Nogai, Karakalpak, Kazakh, Kyrgyz), "South-Eastern" or "Karluk" languages ​​(Uzbek, Uighur), "North-Eastern" languages ​​- a genetically heterogeneous group, including: a) the Yakut subgroup (Yakut and Dolgan languages), which separated from the common Turkic, according to glottochronological data, before its final collapse, in the 3rd century BC. AD; b) the Sayan group (Tuvan and Tofalar languages); c) the Khakass group (Khakas, Shor, Chulym, Saryg-Yugur); d) Gorno-Altai group (Oirot, Teleut, Tuba, Lebedinsky, Kumandin). The southern dialects of the Gorno-Altai group are close in a number of parameters to the Kyrgyz language, constituting with it the "central-eastern group" of the Turkic languages; some dialects of the Uzbek language clearly belong to the Nogai subgroup of the Kypchak group; Khorezm dialects of the Uzbek language belong to the Oguz group; part of the Siberian dialects of the Tatar language is approaching the Chulym-Turkic.

The earliest deciphered written monuments of the Turks date back to the 7th century. AD (steles written in runic script found on the Orkhon River in northern Mongolia). Throughout their history, the Turks used the Turkic runic (ascending, apparently, to the Sogdian script), Uighur script (later passed from them to the Mongols), Brahmi, Manichaean script, and Arabic script. At present, writings based on Arabic, Latin and Cyrillic are common.

According to historical sources, information about the Turkic peoples for the first time emerges in connection with the appearance of the Huns on the historical arena. The steppe empire of the Huns, like all known formations of this kind, was not monoethnic; judging by the linguistic material that has come down to us, there was a Turkic element in it. Moreover, the dating of the initial information about the Huns (in Chinese historical sources) is 4-3 centuries. BC. – coincides with the glottochronological definition of the time of the allocation of the Bulgar group. Therefore, a number of scientists directly connect the beginning of the movement of the Huns with the separation and departure to the west of the Bulgars. The ancestral home of the Turks is placed in the northwestern part of the Central Asian plateau, between the Altai mountains and the northern part of the Khingan Range. From the southeast side they were in contact with the Mongol tribes, from the west their neighbors were the Indo-European peoples of the Tarim Basin, from the northwest - the Ural and Yenisei peoples, from the north - the Tungus-Manchus.

By the 1st century BC. separate tribal groups of the Huns moved to the territory of modern South Kazakhstan, in the 4th century. AD the invasion of the Huns to Europe begins, by the end of the 5th century. In Byzantine sources, the ethnonym "Bulgars" appears, denoting a confederation of tribes of Hunnic origin, which occupied the steppe between the Volga and Danube basins. In the future, the Bulgarian confederation is divided into the Volga-Bulgarian and Danube-Bulgarian parts.

After the breakaway of the "Bulgars", the rest of the Turks continued to remain in the territory close to their ancestral home until the 6th century. AD, when, after defeating the Zhuan-Zhuan confederation (part of the Xianbei, presumably the proto-Mongols who defeated and ousted the Huns in their time), they formed the Turkic confederation, which dominated from the middle of the 6th to the middle of the 7th century. over a vast territory from the Amur to the Irtysh. Historical sources do not provide information about the moment of separation from the Turkic community of the ancestors of the Yakuts. The only way to connect the ancestors of the Yakuts with some historical messages is to identify them with the Kurykans of the Orkhon inscriptions, which belonged to the Teles confederation absorbed by the Turks. They were localized at that time, apparently, to the east of Baikal. Judging by the references in the Yakut epic, the main advance of the Yakuts to the north is associated with a much later time - the expansion of the empire of Genghis Khan.

In 583, the Turkic confederation was divided into Western (with its center in Talas) and Eastern Turks (in other words, “blue Turks”), the center of which was the former center of the Turkic empire Kara-Balgasun on Orkhon. Apparently, the disintegration of the Turkic languages ​​into the western (Oghuz, Kipchak) and eastern (Siberia; Kirghiz; Karluk) macrogroups is connected with this event. In 745, the Eastern Turks were defeated by the Uighurs (localized to the southwest of Lake Baikal and presumably at first non-Turks, but by that time already Turkicized). Both the Eastern Turkic and the Uyghur states experienced a strong cultural influence of China, but the Eastern Iranians, primarily Sogdian merchants and missionaries, had no less influence on them; in 762 Manichaeism became the state religion of the Uighur empire.

In 840 the Uyghur state centered on the Orkhon was destroyed by the Kyrkiz (from the upper reaches of the Yenisei; presumably also at first not a Turkic, but by this time a Turkicized people), the Uyghurs fled to Eastern Turkestan, where in 847 they founded a state with the capital Kocho (in the Turfan oasis). From here the main monuments of the ancient Uighur language and culture have come down to us. Another group of fugitives settled in what is now the Chinese province of Gansu; their descendants may be Saryg-Yugurs. The entire northeastern group of Turks, except for the Yakuts, can also go back to the Uyghur conglomerate, as part of the Turkic population of the former Uyghur Khaganate, which moved northward, deeper into the taiga, already at the time of the Mongol expansion.

In 924, the Kyrgyz were ousted from the Orkhon state by the Khitans (presumably Mongols in language) and partly returned to the upper reaches of the Yenisei, partly moved westward, to the southern spurs of the Altai. Apparently, the formation of the central-eastern group of Turkic languages ​​can be traced back to this South Altai migration.

The Turfan state of the Uyghurs existed for a long time next to another Turkic state dominated by the Karluks, a Turkic tribe that originally lived to the east of the Uyghurs, but by 766 moved to the west and subjugated the state of the Western Turks, whose tribal groups spread in the steppes of Turan (Ili-Talas region , Sogdiana, Khorasan and Khorezm; at the same time, Iranians lived in the cities). At the end of the 8th c. Karluk Khan Yabgu converted to Islam. The Karluks gradually assimilated the Uighurs who lived to the east, and the Uighur literary language served as the basis for the literary language of the Karluk (Karakhanid) state.

Part of the tribes of the Western Turkic Khaganate were Oghuz. Of these, the Seljuk confederation stood out, which at the turn of the 1st millennium AD. migrated west through Khorasan to Asia Minor. Apparently, the linguistic consequence of this movement was the formation of the southwestern group of Turkic languages. Approximately at the same time (and, apparently, in connection with these events) there was a mass migration to the Volga-Ural steppes and Eastern Europe of tribes representing the ethnic basis of the current Kypchak languages.

The phonological systems of the Turkic languages ​​are characterized by a number of common properties. In the field of consonantism, restrictions on the occurrence of phonemes in the position of the beginning of a word, a tendency to weaken in the initial position, restrictions on the compatibility of phonemes are common. At the beginning of the primordial Turkic words are not found l,r,n, š ,z. Noisy plosives are usually contrasted by strength/weakness (Eastern Siberia) or deafness/voicedness. At the beginning of a word, the opposition of consonants in terms of deafness/voicedness (strength/weakness) exists only in the Oguz and Sayan groups, in most other languages ​​at the beginning of a word, labials are voiced, dental and back-lingual are deaf. Uvular in most Turkic languages ​​are allophones of velar with back vowels. The following types of historical changes in the consonant system are classified as significant. a) In the Bulgar group in most positions there is a voiceless fricative lateral l coincided with l in sound in l; r And r in r. In other Turkic languages l gave š , r gave z, l And r preserved. In relation to this process, all Turkologists are divided into two camps: some call it rotacism-lambdaism, others - zetacism-sigmatism, and this is statistically associated, respectively, with their non-recognition or recognition of the Altaic kinship of languages. b) Intervocalic d(pronounced as interdental fricative ð) gives r in Chuvash t in Yakut d in the Sayan languages ​​and Khalaj (an isolated Turkic language in Iran), z in the Khakass group and j in other languages; respectively, talking about r-,t-,d-,z- And j- languages.

The vocalism of most Turkic languages ​​is characterized by synharmonism (the likening of vowels within one word) in row and roundness; the vowel system is reconstructed for the Proto-Turkic as well. Synharmonism disappeared in the Karluk group (as a result of which the opposition of velar and uvular was phonologized there). In the New Uighur language, a kind of synharmonism is again built - the so-called "Uyghur umlaut", the leading of wide unrounded vowels before the next i(which ascends both to the front *i, and to the rear * ï ). In Chuvash, the whole system of vowels has changed a lot, and the old vowel harmony has disappeared (its trace is the opposition k from a velar in an anterior word and x from the uvular in the back row word), but then a new synharmonism lined up in a row, taking into account the current phonetic characteristics of vowels. The opposition of vowels by longitude/shortness that existed in the Proto-Turkic was preserved in the Yakut and Turkmen languages ​​(and in a residual form in other Oghuz languages, where the voiceless consonants sounded after the old long vowels, as well as in the Sayan languages, where short vowels before voiceless consonants receive the sign of "pharyngealization") ; in other Turkic languages ​​it disappeared, but in many languages ​​long vowels reappeared after intervocalic voiced omissions (Tuvinsk. so"tub"< *sagu and under.). In Yakut, primary wide long vowels have turned into ascending diphthongs.

In all modern Turkic languages ​​- a power stress, which is morphonologically fixed. In addition, tonal and phonation oppositions were noted for the Siberian languages, however, they were not fully described.

From the point of view of morphological typology, the Turkic languages ​​belong to the agglutinative, suffixal type. At the same time, if the Western Turkic languages ​​are a classic example of agglutinative ones and have almost no fusion, then the Eastern ones, like the Mongolian languages, develop a powerful fusion.

The grammatical categories of the name in the Turkic languages ​​are number, belonging, case. The order of affixes is: base + aff. numbers + aff. accessories + case aff. Plural form h. is usually formed by adding an affix to the stem -lar(in Chuvash -sem). In all Turkic languages, the plural form hours is marked, the form of units. hours - unmarked. In particular, in the generic meaning and with numerals, the singular form is used. numbers (kumyk. men at gerdyum " I (actually) saw horses."

Case systems include: a) the nominative (or main) case with a zero indicator; the form with a zero case indicator is used not only as a subject and a nominal predicate, but also as an indefinite direct object, an adjectival definition and with many postpositions; b) accusative case (aff. *- (ï )g) - case of a certain direct object; c) genitive case (aff.) - the case of a concrete-referential applied definition; d) dative-directive (aff. *-a/*-ka); e) local (aff. *-ta); e) ablative (aff. *-tin). The Yakut language rebuilt the case system along the lines of the Tungus-Manchu languages. Usually there are two types of declension: nominal and possessive-nominal (declension of words with affixes of the 3rd person; case affixes take a slightly different form in this case).

The adjective in the Turkic languages ​​differs from the noun in the absence of inflectional categories. Receiving the syntactic function of the subject or object, the adjective acquires all the inflectional categories of the noun.

Pronouns change by case. Personal pronouns are available for 1 and 2 persons (* bi/ben"I", * si/sen"you", * bir"we", *sir"you"), in the third person demonstrative pronouns are used. Demonstrative pronouns in most languages ​​distinguish three degrees of range, for example, bu"this", Su"this remote" (or "this" when indicated by the hand), ol"that". Interrogative pronouns distinguish between animate and inanimate ( Kim"who" and ne"what").

In the verb, the order of affixes is as follows: the stem of the verb (+ aff. voice) (+ aff. negation (- ma-)) + aff. inclination/view-temporal + aff. conjugations for persons and numbers (in brackets - affixes that are not necessarily present in the word form).

Voices of the Turkic verb: real (without indicators), passive (*- il), return ( *-in-), mutual ( * -ïš- ) and causative ( *-t-,*-ir-,*-tyr- and some etc.). These indicators can be combined with each other (cum. ger-yush-"see", gyor-yush-dir-"to force to see" jaz-hole-"force to write" yaz-hole-yl-"to be compelled to write").

The conjugated forms of the verb fall into proper verbal and improper verbal forms. The former have personal indicators that go back to the affixes of belonging (except for 1 lit. plural and 3 lit. plural). These include the past categorical tense (aorist) in the indicative mood: verb stem + indicator - d- + personal indicators: bar-d-im"I went" oqu-d-u-lar"they read"; means a completed action, the fact of the implementation of which is beyond doubt. This also includes the conditional mood (verb stem + -sa-+ personal indicators); desired mood (verb stem + -aj- + personal indicators: pra-Turkic. * bar-aj-im"let me go" * bar-aj-ik"let's go"); imperative mood (pure stem of the verb in 2 l singular and stem + in 2 l. pl. h.).

Non-proper verbal forms are historically gerunds and participles in the function of the predicate, decorated with the same indicators of predicability as nominal predicates, namely, postpositive personal pronouns. For example: other Turkic. ( ben)beg ben"I'm Bek" ben anca tir ben"I say so", lit. "I say so-I." Present participles (or simultaneity) are distinguished (stem + -a), indefinite future (base + -VR, where V– vowel of different quality), precedence (stem + -ip), desired mood (base + -g aj); participle perfect (stem + -g an), behind-the-eyes, or descriptive (stem + -mus), definite-future tense (stem + ) and many others. etc. The affixes of gerunds and participles do not carry collateral oppositions. Verbs with predicative affixes, as well as gerunds with auxiliary verbs in proper and improper verbal forms (numerous existential, phase, modal verbs, verbs of motion, verbs "take" and "give") express a variety of committed, modal, directional and accommodative meanings, cf. Kumyk. bara bulgaiman"Looks like I'm going" go- dep. simultaneity become- dep. desired -I), ishley goremen"I am going to work" ( work- dep. simultaneity look- dep. simultaneity -I), language"sleep (for yourself)" ( write- dep. precedence take). Various verbal names of action are used as infinitives in various Turkic languages.

From the point of view of syntactic typology, the Turkic languages ​​belong to the languages ​​of the nominative system with the prevailing word order "subject - object - predicate", preposition of the definition, preference for postpositions over prepositions. There is a folded design – with the indicator of membership at the defined word ( at bas-i"horse head", lit. "the horse's head is hers"). In a composing phrase, usually all grammatical indicators are attached to the last word.

The general rules for the formation of subordinating phrases (including sentences) are cyclical: any subordinating combination can be inserted as one of the members into any other, and the connection indicators are attached to the main member of the built-in combination (the verb form turns into the corresponding participle or gerund). Wed: Kumyk. ak sakal"white beard" ak sakal-ly gishi"white-bearded man" booth-la-ny ara-son-yes"between the booths" booth-la-ny ara-son-da-gye yol-well orta-son-da"in the middle of the path passing between the booths", sen ok atganing"you shot an arrow" sen ok atganyng-ny gerdyum"I saw you shoot an arrow" ("you shot an arrow - 2 l. singular - vin. case - I saw"). When a predicative combination is inserted in this way, one often speaks of the "Altai type of a complex sentence"; indeed, the Turkic and other Altaic languages ​​show a clear preference for such absolute constructions with the verb in the impersonal form over subordinate clauses. The latter, however, are also used; for connection in complex sentences, allied words are used - interrogative pronouns (in subordinate clauses) and correlative words - demonstrative pronouns (in main sentences).

The main part of the vocabulary of the Turkic languages ​​is native, often having parallels in other Altaic languages. Comparison of the general vocabulary of the Turkic languages ​​allows us to get an idea of ​​the world in which the Turks lived in the period of the collapse of the Proto-Turkic community: the landscape, fauna and flora of the southern taiga in Eastern Siberia, on the border with the steppe; metallurgy of the early Iron Age; economic structure of the same period; transhumance cattle breeding based on horse breeding (with the use of horse meat for food) and sheep breeding; farming in a subsidiary function; the big role of developed hunting; two types of dwellings - winter stationary and summer portable; quite developed social dismemberment on a tribal basis; apparently, to a certain extent, a codified system of legal relations in active trade; a set of religious and mythological concepts characteristic of shamanism. In addition, of course, such “basic” vocabulary as the names of body parts, verbs of movement, sensory perception, etc. is being restored.

In addition to the original Turkic vocabulary, modern Turkic languages ​​use a large number of borrowings from languages ​​with whose speakers the Turks have ever come into contact. These are, first of all, Mongolian borrowings (there are many borrowings from the Turkic languages ​​in the Mongolian languages, there are also cases when a word was borrowed first from the Turkic languages ​​into Mongolian, and then back, from the Mongolian languages ​​into Turkic, cf. other Uighur. irbi, Tuvan. irbis"bars" > mong. irbis > Kirg. irbis). There are many Tungus-Manchurian borrowings in the Yakut language, in Chuvash and Tatar they are borrowed from the Finno-Ugric languages ​​of the Volga region (as well as vice versa). A significant part of the “cultural” vocabulary has been borrowed: in the Old Uyghur there are many borrowings from Sanskrit and Tibetan, primarily Buddhist terminology; in the languages ​​of the Muslim Turkic peoples there are many Arabicisms and Persianisms; in the languages ​​of the Turkic peoples that were part of the Russian Empire and the USSR, there are many Russian borrowings, including internationalisms like communism,tractor,political economy. On the other hand, there are many Turkic borrowings in Russian. The earliest are borrowings from the Danube-Bulgarian language into Old Church Slavonic ( book, drop"idol" - in the word temple“pagan temple”, etc.), who came from there to Russian; there are also borrowings from Bulgar into Old Russian (as well as into other Slavic languages): serum(Common Turk. *jogurt, bulg. *suvart), bursa"Persian silk fabric" (Chuvashsk. porcin< *bar and un< Wed-Pers. *aparesum; trade of pre-Mongol Rus with Persia went along the Volga through the Great Bulgar). A large amount of cultural vocabulary was borrowed into Russian from the late medieval Turkic languages ​​in the 14th–17th centuries. (during the time of the Golden Horde and even more later, during the time of brisk trade with the surrounding Turkic states: ass, pencil, raisin,shoe, iron,Altyn,arshin,coachman,Armenian,ditches,dried apricots and many others. etc.). In later times, the Russian language borrowed from Turkic only words denoting local Turkic realities ( snow leopard,ayran,kobyz,sultana,village,elm). Contrary to a common misconception, there are no Turkic borrowings among Russian obscene (obscene) vocabulary, almost all of these words are Slavic in origin.

TURKIC LANGUAGES, that is, the system of Turkic (Turkic Tatar or Turkish Tatar) languages, occupy a very vast territory in the USSR (from Yakutia to the Crimea and the Caucasus) and much smaller beyond its borders (the languages ​​of the Anatolian-Balkan Turks, Gagauz and ... ... Literary Encyclopedia

A group of closely related languages. Presumably, it is included in the hypothetical Altaic macrofamily of languages. It is divided into western (Western Xiongnu) and eastern (East Xiongnu) branches. The western branch includes: the Bulgar group Bulgar ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

OR TURANIAN is the common name of the languages ​​​​of different nationalities of the sowing. Asia and Europe, the original home of the cat. Altai; therefore they are also called Altai. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Pavlenkov F., 1907 ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

TURKIC LANGUAGES, see Tatar language. Lermontov Encyclopedia / USSR Academy of Sciences. In t rus. lit. (Pushkin. House); Scientific ed. council of the publishing house of the Sov. Encycl. ; Ch. ed. Manuilov V. A., Editorial staff: Andronikov I. L., Bazanov V. G., Bushmin A. S., Vatsuro V. E., Zhdanov V ... Lermontov Encyclopedia

A group of closely related languages. Presumably included in the hypothetical Altaic macrofamily of languages. It is divided into western (Western Xiongnu) and eastern (East Xiongnu) branches. The western branch includes: the Bulgar group Bulgar (ancient ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

- (obsolete names: Turkic Tatar, Turkish, Turkish Tatar languages) languages ​​​​of numerous peoples and nationalities of the USSR and Turkey, as well as some part of the population of Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia and ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

An extensive group (family) of languages ​​spoken in Russia, Ukraine, the countries of Central Asia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, Turkey, as well as Romania, Bulgaria, the former Yugoslavia, Albania. Belong to the Altai family. ... ... Handbook of etymology and historical lexicology

Turkic languages- Turkic languages ​​are a family of languages ​​spoken by numerous peoples and nationalities of the USSR, Turkey, part of the population of Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Albania. The question of the genetic relationship of these languages ​​to the Altaic ... Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (Turkic family of languages). Languages ​​that form a number of groups that include Turkish, Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Turkmen, Uzbek, Kara-Kalpak, Uighur, Tatar, Bashkir, Chuvash, Balkar, Karachai, ... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms

Turkic languages- (Turkic languages), see Altaic languages ​​... Peoples and cultures

Books

• Languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR. In 5 volumes (set), . The collective work LANGUAGES OF THE PEOPLES OF THE USSR is dedicated to the 50th anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution. This paper summarizes the main results of the study (in synchronous terms) ...
• Turkic convertibles and serialization. Syntax, semantics, grammaticalization, Grashchenkov Pavel Valerievich. The monograph is devoted to convertibles in -p and their place in the grammatical system of the Turkic languages. The question is raised about the nature of the connection (composing, subordinating) between the parts of complex predications with ...

It must be distinguished from the modern Khorezmian dialect and the Iranian Khorezmian language. Khorezmian Turkic language Regions: Central Asia, Khorezm and oases along the lower reaches of the river. Cheese Yes ... Wikipedia

Self-name: Or Turks Country: People's Republic of China ... Wikipedia

Self-name: Khorasani Turks Countries: Iran, Uzbekistan ... Wikipedia

Sonkor Turkic (Songor Turkic) Countries: Iran Regions: Kermanshah ... Wikipedia

Avar language Self-name: unknown Countries ... Wikipedia

Chulym-Turkic language- Chulym Turkic language is one of the Turkic languages. Distributed along the banks of the Chulym River, the right tributary of the Ob. The number of speakers is about 500 people. It is divided into 2 dialects: Lower Chulym and Middle Chulym. For Ch. I. characterized by the presence of etymologically long ... ...

Turkic Khaganate (Kaganate) 552 603 ... Wikipedia

The Turkic parent language is the common predecessor of the modern Turkic languages, reconstructed using a comparatively historical method. Presumably arose from a common Altaic proto-language on the basis of a hypothetical Nostratic family in ... ... Wikipedia

Language of fiction- The language of fiction 1) the language in which works of art are created (its lexicon, grammar, phonetics), in some societies, completely different from everyday, everyday ("practical") language; In this sense… … Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary

Books

• Turks or Mongols? The era of Genghis Khan. , Olovintsov Anatoly Grigorievich. How did a small nation conquer a multimillion-strong China, all of Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Volga region, the principalities of Russia and half of Europe? Who are they - Turks or Mongols? ... It's hard...
• Turks or Mongols? The era of Genghis Khan, Olovintsov Anatoly Grigorievich. How did a small nation conquer a multimillion-strong China, all of Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Volga region, the principalities of Russia and half of Europe? Who are they - Turks or Mongols? …This is difficult…