The main features of Russian classicism

Appeal to the images and forms of ancient art.

Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative, have speaking names.

The plot is based, as a rule, on a love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover (unsuccessful).

At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs.

The principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place (the action takes place in one place), action (1 storyline).

Start

The first classicist writer in Russia was Antioch Kantemir. He was the first to write works of the classic genre (namely, satires, epigrams, and others).

The history of the emergence of Russian classicism according to V.I. Fedorov:

1st period: literature of the time of Peter the Great; it is of a transitional nature; the main feature - an intensive process of "secularization" (that is, the replacement of religious literature with secular literature - 1689-1725) - the prerequisites for the emergence of classicism.

Period 2: 1730-1750 - these years are characterized by the formation of classicism, the creation of a new genre system, and the in-depth development of the Russian language.

3rd period: 1760-1770 - the further evolution of classicism, the flowering of satire, the emergence of prerequisites for the emergence of sentimentalism.

4 period: the last quarter of a century - the beginning of the crisis of classicism, the design of sentimentalism, the strengthening of realistic tendencies (1. Direction, development, inclination, aspiration; 2. Idea, idea of ​​presentation, image).

Trediakovsky and Lomonosov

Classicism received the next round of development in Russia under Trediakovsky and Lomonosov. They created the Russian syllabo-tonic system of versification and introduced many Western genres (such as madrigal, sonnet, etc.). The syllabo-tonic system of versification is a system of syllable-stressed versification. It includes two rhythm-forming factors - syllable and stress - and implies a regular alternation of text fragments with an equal number of syllables, among which stressed syllables alternate in a certain regular way with unstressed ones. It is within the framework of this system that most of the Russian poetry was written.

Derzhavin

Derzhavin develops the traditions of Russian classicism, continuing the traditions of Lomonosov and Sumarokov.

For him, the purpose of the poet is the glorification of great deeds and the condemnation of bad ones. In the ode "Felitsa" he glorifies the enlightened monarchy, which personifies the reign of Catherine II. The smart, fair empress is opposed to the greedy and mercenary nobles of the court: Only you won’t offend, You don’t offend anyone, You see foolishness through your fingers, Only you don’t tolerate evil alone ...

The main object of Derzhavin's poetics is a person as a unique individuality in all the richness of personal tastes and predilections. Many of his odes are philosophical in nature, they discuss the place and purpose of man on earth, the problems of life and death: I am the connection of the worlds that exist everywhere, I am the extreme degree of matter; I am the center of the living, The trait of the initial deity; I decay in the dust with my body, I command thunder with my mind, I am a king - I am a slave - I am a worm - I am a god! But, being so wonderful, Where did I come from? - unknown: I couldn't be myself. Ode "God", (1784)

Derzhavin creates a number of samples of lyrical poems in which the philosophical intensity of his odes is combined with an emotional attitude to the events described. In the poem "Snigir" (1800), Derzhavin mourns the death of Suvorov: Why are you starting a song like a military flute, like a sweet snigir? With whom shall we go to war against the Hyena? Who is our leader now? Who is the rich man? Where is strong, brave, fast Suvorov? Severn thunders lie in a coffin.

Before his death, Derzhavin begins to write an ode to the RUIN OF HORROR, from which only the beginning has come down to us: The river of time in its aspiration Carries away all the deeds of people And drowns peoples, kingdoms and kings in the abyss of oblivion. And if anything remains Through the sounds of the lyre and the trumpet, Then eternity will be devoured by the mouth And the common fate will not go away!

The fall of classicism

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Classicism is a literary style that was developed in France in the 17th century. It gained its distribution in Europe in the 17th-19th centuries. The direction, which turned to antiquity as an ideal model, is closely connected with. Based on the ideas of rationalism and rationality, it sought to express social content, to establish a hierarchy of literary genres. Speaking about the world representatives of classicism, one cannot fail to mention Racine, Moliere, Corneille, La Rochefoucauld, Boileau, Labruille, Goethe. Mondori, Leken, Rachel, Talma, Dmitrievsky were imbued with the ideas of classicism.

The desire to display the ideal in the real, the eternal in the temporal - this is a characteristic feature of classicism. In literature, not a specific character is created, but a collective image of a hero or villain, or base. In classicism, a mixture of genres, images and characters is unacceptable. There are boundaries here that no one is allowed to break.

Classicism in Russian literature is a certain turn in art, which attached particular importance to such genres as ode and tragedy. The founder is considered to be Lomonosov, tragedies - Sumarokov. The ode combined journalism and lyrics. Comedies were directly related to ancient times, while tragedies told about the figures of national history. Speaking about the great Russian figures of the period of classicism, it is worth mentioning Derzhavin, Knyazhnin, Sumarokov, Volkov, Fonvizin and others.

Classicism in Russian literature of the 18th century, as well as in French literature, relied on the positions of tsarist power. As they themselves said, art should guard the interests of society, give people a certain idea of ​​civic behavior and morality. The ideas of serving the state and society are consonant with the interests of the monarchy, so classicism has become widespread throughout Europe and in Russia. But it should not be associated only with the ideas of glorifying the power of monarchs, Russian writers reflected in their works the interests of the "middle" layer.

Classicism in Russian literature. Main features

The basic ones include:

• appeal to antiquity, its various forms and images;
• the principle of unity of time, action and place (one storyline prevails, the action lasts up to 1 day);
• in the comedies of classicism, good triumphs over evil, vices are punished, the love line is based on a triangle;
• the characters have "speaking" names and surnames, they themselves have a clear division into positive and negative.

Delving into history, it is worth remembering that the era of classicism in Russia originates from the writer who was the first to write works in this genre (epigrams, satires, etc.). Each of the writers and poets of this era was a pioneer in his field. Lomonosov played the main role in the reform of the literary Russian language. At the same time, a reform of versification took place.

As Fedorov V.I. says, the first prerequisites for the emergence of classicism in Russia appeared during the time of Peter the Great (in 1689-1725). As a genre of literature, the style of classicism was formed by the mid-1730s. In the second half of the 1960s, its rapid development took place. There is a dawn of journalistic genres in periodicals. It evolved already by 1770, but the crisis began in the last quarter of a century. By that time, sentimentalism had finally taken shape, and the tendencies of realism intensified. The final fall of classicism occurred after the publication of "Conversations of lovers of the Russian word."

Classicism in Russian literature of the 1930s and 1950s also influenced the development of the sciences of the Enlightenment. At this time, there was a transition from the ideology of the church to the secular. Russia needed knowledge and new minds. All this gave her classicism.

Introduction

1.Characteristics of classicism

2. Basics of classicism and its meaning

3. Features of classicism in Russia and its supporters

3.1 Kantemirov A.D.

3.2 Trediakovsky V.K.

3.3 Lomonosov M.V.

4. Russian classicism as a literary movement

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

From the Latin classicus - exemplary. A style or trend in literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, which turned to the ancient heritage as a norm and an ideal model. Classicism took shape in the 17th century. in France. In the 18th century classicism was associated with the Enlightenment; based on the ideas of philosophical rationalism, on the ideas of the rational laws of the world, of the beautiful ennobled nature, he strove to express a great social content, lofty heroic and moral ideals, to a strict organization of logical, clear and harmonious images.

According to the lofty ethical ideas, the educational program of art, the aesthetics of classicism established a hierarchy of genres - “high” (tragedy, epic, ode; historical, mythological, religious painting, etc.) and “low” (comedy, satire, fable; genre painting and etc.). In literature (the tragedies of P. Corneille, J. Racine, Voltaire, the comedies of Molière, the poem "The Art of Poetry" and the satires of N. Boileau, the fables of J. La Fontaine, the prose of F. La Rochefoucauld, J. La Bruyère in France, the work of the Weimar period of I.V. (Goethe and F. Schiller in Germany, the odes of M. V. Lomonosov and G. R. Derzhavin, the tragedies of A. P. Sumarokov and Ya. B. Knyazhnin in Russia), the leading role is played by significant ethical collisions, normative typified images. For theatrical art [Mondory, T. Duparc, M. Chanmele, A.L. Lequin, F.J. Talma, Rachel in France, F.K. Neuber in Germany, F.G. Volkov, I.A. Dmitrevsky in Russia] are characterized by a solemn, static structure of performances, measured reading of poetry. In the musical theater, heroics, elation of style, logical clarity of dramaturgy, the dominance of recitative (J.B. Lully's operas in France) or vocal virtuosity in arias (Italian opera seria), noble simplicity and sublimity (K.V. Gluck's reformist operas in Austria). Classicism in architecture (J. Hardouin - mansart, J.A. Gabriel, K.N. Ledoux in France, K. Ren in England, V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, A.N. Voronikhin, A.D. Zakharov, K.I. Rossi in Russia) inherent clarity and geometrism of forms, rational clarity of planning, combinations of smooth walls from warrant And discreet decor. Fine arts (painters N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, J.L. David, J.O.D. Ingres, sculptors J.B. Pigalle, E.M. Falcone in France, I.G. Shadov in Germany, B Thorvaldsen in Denmark, A. Canova in Italy, painters A.P. Losenko, G.I. Ugryumov, sculptors M.P. Matros in Russia) is distinguished by the logical unfolding of the plot, the strict balance of the composition, the plastic clarity of forms, the clear harmony of linear rhythms .

1.Characteristics of classicism

This direction is characterized by a high civic theme, strict observance of certain creative norms and rules. Classicism, as a certain artistic direction, tends to reflect life in ideal images, gravitating towards a certain “norm”, a model. Hence the cult of antiquity in classicism: classical antiquity appears in it as an example of modern and harmonic art. According to the rules of the aesthetics of classicism, strictly adhering to the so-called "hierarchy of genres", tragedy, ode and epic belonged to the "high genres", and had to develop especially important problems, resorting to ancient and historical plots, and display only the sublime, heroic sides of life. "High genres" were opposed by "low" ones: comedy, fable, satire and others, designed to reflect modern reality.

Each genre had its own theme (selection of topics), and each work was built according to the rules developed for this. It was strictly forbidden to mix the techniques of various literary genres in the work.

The most developed genres in the period of classicism were tragedies, poems and odes. Tragedy, in the understanding of the classicists, is such a dramatic work, which depicts the struggle of a person outstanding in his spiritual strength with insurmountable obstacles; such a struggle usually ends in the death of the hero. The classicist writers put the tragedy at the heart of the collision (conflict) of the hero's personal feelings and aspirations with his duty to the state. This conflict was resolved by the victory of duty. The plots of the tragedy were borrowed from the writers of ancient Greece and Rome, sometimes taken from the historical events of the past. Heroes were kings, commanders. As in Greco-Roman tragedy, the characters were portrayed as either positive or negative, and each person was the personification of any one spiritual trait, one quality: positive courage, justice, etc., negative - ambition, hypocrisy. These were conditional characters. Also conditionally depicted and life, and the era. There was no true image of historical reality, nationality (it is not known where and when the action takes place).

The tragedy was supposed to have five acts.

The playwright had to strictly observe the rules of the "three unities": time, place and action. The unity of time required that all the events of the tragedy fit within a period not exceeding one day. The unity of the place was expressed in the fact that the whole action of the play took place in one place - in the palace or on the square. The unity of action presupposed an internal connection of events; nothing superfluous, not necessary for the development of the plot, was allowed in the tragedy. Tragedy had to be written in solemnly majestic verse.

The poem was an epic (narrative) work, setting out in poetic language an important historical event or glorifying the exploits of heroes and kings.

Ode is a solemn song of praise in honor of kings, generals or a victory won over enemies. The ode was supposed to express the delight, inspiration of the author (pathos). Therefore, she was characterized by an elevated, solemn language, rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals, the personification of abstract concepts (science, victory), images of gods and goddesses, and conscious exaggerations. In terms of the ode, “lyrical disorder” was allowed, which was expressed in a deviation from the harmony of the presentation of the main theme. But it was a conscious, strictly considered digression ("proper mess").

2. Basics of classicism and its meaning

classicism literature style

The doctrine of classicism was based on the idea of ​​the dualism of human nature. In the struggle between the material and the spiritual, the greatness of man was revealed. The personality was affirmed in the fight against "passions", freed from selfish material interests. The rational, spiritual principle in a person was considered as the most important quality of a person. The idea of ​​the greatness of reason, which unites people, found expression in the creation of the theory of art by the classicists. In the aesthetics of classicism, it is seen as a way to imitate the essence of things. “Virtue,” Sumarokov wrote, “we owe not to our nature. Morality and politics make us useful to the common good in terms of enlightenment, reason and purification of hearts. And without that, people would have long ago exterminated each other without a trace.

Classicism - urban, metropolitan poetry. There are almost no images of nature in it, and if landscapes are given, then urban ones, pictures of artificial nature are drawn: squares, grottoes, fountains, trimmed trees.

This direction is formed, experiencing the influence of other pan-European trends in art that are directly in contact with it: it repels the aesthetics that preceded it and opposes the art that actively coexists with it, imbued with the consciousness of general discord generated by the crisis of the ideals of the past era. Continuing some of the traditions of the Renaissance (admiration for the ancients, faith in reason, the ideal of harmony and measure), classicism was a kind of antithesis to it; behind the external harmony, it hides the internal antinomy of the worldview, which makes it related to the baroque (for all their deep differences). Generic and individual, public and private, mind and feeling, civilization and nature, which acted (in a trend) in the art of the Renaissance as a single harmonious whole, are polarized in classicism, becoming mutually exclusive concepts. This reflected a new historical state, when the political and private spheres began to disintegrate, and social relations turned into a separate and abstract force for a person.

For its time, classicism had a positive meaning. Writers proclaimed the importance of a person fulfilling his civic duties, sought to educate a person-citizen; developed the question of genres, their compositions, streamlined the language. Classicism dealt a crushing blow to medieval literature, full of faith in the miraculous, in ghosts, subordinating human consciousness to the teachings of the church. Enlightenment classicism was formed earlier than others in foreign literature. In works devoted to the 18th century, this trend is often assessed as the “high” classicism of the 17th century that has fallen into decay. This is not entirely true. Of course, there is a succession between Enlightenment and "high" classicism, but Enlightenment classicism is an integral artistic movement that reveals the previously unused artistic potential of classic art and has enlightening features. The literary doctrine of classicism was associated with advanced philosophical systems, representing a reaction to medieval mysticism and scholasticism. These philosophical systems were, in particular, the rationalistic theory of Descartes and the materialistic doctrine of Gassendi. The philosophy of Descartes, who declared reason the only criterion of truth, had a particularly great influence on the formation of the aesthetic principles of classicism. In the theory of Descartes, the materialistic principles, based on the data of the exact sciences, were combined in a peculiar way with the idealistic principles, with the assertion of the decisive superiority of the spirit, thinking over matter, being, with the theory of the so-called "innate" ideas. The cult of reason underlies the aesthetics of classicism. Since any feeling in the view of the adherents of the theory of classicism was random and arbitrary, the measure of a person's value was for them the correspondence of his actions to the laws of reason. Above all in man, classicism placed the "reasonable" ability to suppress personal feelings and passions in oneself in the name of one's duty to the state. A person in the works of the followers of classicism is, first of all, a servant of the state, a person in general, because the rejection of the inner life of the individual naturally followed from the principle of subordination of the particular to the general proclaimed by classicism. Classicism depicted not so much people as characters, images-concepts. Typification was carried out because of this in the form of images-masks, which were the embodiment of human vices and virtues. Just as abstract was the timeless and spaceless setting in which these images operated. Classicism was ahistorical even in those cases when it turned to the depiction of historical events and historical figures, for writers were not interested in historical authenticity, but in the possibility through the lips of pseudo-historical heroes of eternal and general truths, eternal and general properties of characters, supposedly inherent in people of all times and peoples.

3. Features of classicism in Russia and its supporters

In Russia, the formation of classicism takes place almost three-quarters of a century later than it took shape in France. For Russian writers, Voltaire, a representative of contemporary French classicism, was no less an authority than such founders of this literary movement as Corneille or Racine.

Russian classicism had many features in common with Western, in particular with French classicism, since it also arose during the period of absolutism, but it was not a simple imitation. Russian classicism originated and developed on an original soil, taking into account the experience that was accumulated earlier by its established and developed Western European classicism. The peculiar features of Russian classicism are as follows: firstly, from the very beginning, Russian classicism has a strong connection with modern reality, which is illuminated in the best works from the point of view of advanced ideas. The second feature of Russian classicism is the diatribe-satirical stream in their work, conditioned by the progressive social ideas of the writers. The presence of satire in the works of Russian classicist writers gives their work a vitally truthful character. Living modernity, Russian reality, Russian people and Russian nature are to a certain extent reflected in their works. The third feature of Russian classicism, due to the ardent patriotism of Russian writers, is their interest in the history of their homeland. All of them study Russian history, write works on national, historical themes. They strive to create fiction and its language on a national basis, give it their own, Russian face, show attention to folk poetry and folk language. Along with the general features inherent in both French and Russian classicism, the latter also has such features that give it the character of national identity. For example, this is an increased civic-patriotic pathos, a much more pronounced accusatory-realistic tendency, less alienation from oral folk art. Everyday and solemn cantes of the first decades of the 18th century largely prepared the development of various genres of lyrics in the middle and second half of the 18th century.

The main thing in the ideology of classicism is state pathos. The state, created in the first decades of the 18th century, was declared the highest value. The classicists, inspired by the Petrine reforms, believed in the possibility of its further improvement. It seemed to them a rationally arranged social organism, where each estate performs the duties assigned to it. “Peasants plow, merchants trade, warriors defend the fatherland, judges judge, scientists cultivate science,” wrote A.P. Sumarokov. The state pathos of the Russian classicists is a deeply contradictory phenomenon. It also reflected the progressive tendencies associated with the final centralization of Russia, and at the same time - utopian ideas coming from a clear overestimation of the social possibilities of enlightened absolutism.

Four major literary figures contributed to the approval of classicism: A.D. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov and A.P. Sumarokov.

3.1 Kantemirov A.D.

He lived in an era when the first foundations of the modern Russian literary language were just being laid; his satires were written according to the syllabic system of versification, which was already surviving at that time, and nevertheless, the name of Cantemir, in the words of Belinsky, "has already survived many ephemeral celebrities, both classical and romantic, and will still outlive many thousands of them," since Cantemir " first in Russia brought poetry to life. “Symphony on the Psalter” is the first printed work of A. Kantemir, but not his first literary work in general, which is confirmed by the authorized manuscript of the little-known translation of Antiochus Kantemir called “Mr. Philosopher Constantine Manassis Synopsis Historical”, dated 1725.

In the “Translation of a certain Italian letter”, made by A. Cantemir only one year later (1726), vernacular is no longer present in the form of random elements, but as a dominant norm, although the language of this translation was also called Cantemir, out of habit, “gloriously -Russian".

The rapid transition from Church Slavonic vocabulary, morphology and syntax to vernacular, as the norm of literary speech, which can be traced in the earliest works of A. Kantemir, reflected the evolution of not only his individual and individual language and style, but also the development of the linguistic consciousness of the era and the formation of Russian literary language in general. By 1726-1728, the work of A. Kantemir should be attributed to the poems on a love theme that have not come down to us, about which, with a feeling of some regret, he later wrote in the second edition of the IV satire. During this period, Antioch Cantemir showed an increased interest in French literature, which is confirmed both by the above-mentioned "Translation of a certain Italian letter" and by Cantemir's notes in his calendar of 1728, from which we learn about the young writer's acquaintance with French satirical magazines of the English type like " Le Mentor moderne”, as well as with the works of Molière (“The Misanthrope”) and the comedies of Marivaux. The work of A. Cantemir on the translation into Russian of four satires of Boileau and the writing of original poems “On a Quiet Life” and “On Zoila” should also be attributed to the same period.

The early translations of A. Cantemir and his love lyrics were only a preparatory stage in the poet's work, the first test of his strength, the development of language and style, manner of presentation, his own way of seeing the world.

Poems from Philosophical Letters

I honor the law here, obeying rights;

However, I am free to live according to my charters:

The spirit is calm, now life goes on without misfortune,

Every day to eradicate my passions

And looking at the limit, so I establish life,

I calmly guide my days to the end.

I don't miss anyone, there is no need for penalties,

I am happy that I shortened the days of my desires.

I now know the perishability of my age,

I don’t want, I’m not afraid, I expect death.

When you have mercy on me irrevocably

Reveal, then I will be completely happy.

From 1729, the period of the poet's creative maturity begins, when he quite consciously focuses his attention almost exclusively on satire:

In a word, in satires I want to grow old,

And I can’t not write: I can’t stand it.

(IV satire, I ed.)

The first satire of Cantemir, “On those who blaspheme the teachings” (“To your own mind”), was a work of great political resonance, since it was directed against ignorance as a certain social and political force, and not an abstract vice; against ignorance "in an embroidered dress", opposing the transformations of Peter I and enlightenment, against the teachings of Copernicus and book printing; the ignorance of the militant and the triumphant; invested with the authority of the state and church authorities.

Pride, laziness, wealth - wisdom has overcome, Ignorance knowledge has already settled down; It is proud under the miter, walks in an embroidered dress, It judges behind red cloth, leads regiments.

Contrary to the preface to the satire, in which the author tried to assure the reader that everything in it was “written for fun” and that he, the author, “didn’t imagine anyone in particular,” Cantemir’s first satire was directed against quite definite and “particular” persons, - these were the enemies of the cause of Peter and the "scientific squad". “The character of the bishop,” Cantemir wrote in one of the notes to the satire, “although the author describes it from an unknown person, it has many similarities with D ***, who in outdoor ceremonies supplied the entire high priesthood office.” Ridiculing in the satire of a churchman, whose entire education is limited to the assimilation of the "Stone of Faith" by Stefan Yavorsky, Kantemir unequivocally pointed to his own ideological position - a supporter of the "scientific squad". The images of churchmen created by Cantemir corresponded to very real prototypes, and yet they were generalizations, they excited minds, reactionary churchmen of new generations continued to recognize themselves in them, when the name of Antiochus Cantemir became the property of history and when the names of Georgy Dashkov and his associates were betrayed complete oblivion.

3.2 Trediakovsky V.K.

If Kantemir gave samples of Russian satire, then Trediakovsky owns the first Russian ode, which was published as a separate brochure in 1734 under the title “Ode solemn about the surrender of the city of Gdansk” (Danzig). It sang of the Russian army and Empress Anna Ioannovna. In 1752, in connection with the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of St. Petersburg, the poem "Praise to the Izherskaya land and the reigning city of St. Petersburg" was written. This is one of the first works glorifying the northern capital of Russia.

In addition to victorious and commendable, Trediakovsky also wrote "spiritual" odes, that is, poetic transcriptions ("paraphrases") of biblical psalms. The most successful of them is the paraphrase "The Second Songs of Moses", which began with verses:

Wonmi oh! Sky and river

Let the earth hear the mouth of the verbs:

Like rain, I will flow with a word;

And they will descend like dew to a flower,

My broadcasts are down.

Very heartfelt poems are "Poems of Praise for Russia", in which Trediakovsky finds clear and precise words to convey both his immense admiration for the Fatherland and longing for his native land.

I'll start on the flute, poems are sad,

In vain to Russia through distant countries:

For all day to me her kindness

Mother Russia! my infinite light!

Let me ask your faithful child,

Oh, how red you sit on the throne!

The Russian sky you are the Sun is clear

Golden scepters paint all others,

And precious porphyry, miter;

You decorated your scepter with yourself,

And she honored the crown with a bright lyceum ...

By 1735, the “Epistole from Russian Poetry to Apollinus” (to Apollo) dates back, in which the author gives an overview of European literature, paying special attention to ancient and French. The latter is represented by the names of Malherbe, Corneille, Racine, Moliere, Boileau, Voltaire. The solemn invitation of "Apollin" to Russia symbolized the familiarization of Russian poetry with the centuries-old European art.

The next step in acquainting the Russian reader with European classicism was the translation of Boileau's treatise The Art of Poetry (from Trediakovsky's The Science of Poetry) and Horace's Epistle to the Pisons. Here are presented not only "exemplary" writers, but also poetic "rules", which, according to the translator's firm conviction, Russian authors must also follow. Trediakovsky highly appreciated Boileau's treatise, considering it the most perfect guide in the field of artistic creativity. “His piitic science,” he wrote, “seems to be excellent in front of everything, both in the reasoning of the composition of verses and the purity of the language, and in the reasoning ... of the rules proposed in it.”

In 1751, Trediakovsky published his own translation of the English writer John Barclay's novel Argenida. The novel was written in Latin and belonged to the number of moral and political works. The choice of Trediakovsky is not accidental, since the problems of Argenida echoed the political tasks facing Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. The novel glorified "enlightened" absolutism and severely condemned any opposition to the supreme power, from religious sects to political movements. These ideas corresponded to the ideology of early Russian classicism. In the preface to the book, Trediakovsky pointed out that the state "rules" set out in it are useful for Russian society.

In 1766, Trediakovsky published a book called Tilemachida, or the Wandering of Tilemakh, the son of Odysseus, described as part of the heroic piima - a free translation of the novel by the early French educator Fenelon "The Adventures of Telemachus". Fenelon wrote his work in the last years of the reign of Louis XIV, when France suffered from devastating wars, the result of which was the decline of agriculture and crafts.

The historical and literary significance of the Tilemakhida, however, lies not only in its critical content, but also in the more complex tasks that Trediakovsky set himself as a translator. In essence, it was not about translation in the usual sense of the word, but about a radical reworking of the very genre of the book. On the basis of Fenelon's novel, Trediakovsky created a heroic poem modeled on the Homeric epic and, accordingly to his task, called the book not "The Adventures of Telemachus", but "Tilemachis".

Remaking the novel into a poem, Trediakovsky introduces a lot of things that were not in Fenelon's book. So, the beginning of the poem reproduces the beginning, characteristic of the ancient Greek epic. Here is the famous “I sing”, and an appeal to the muse for help, and a summary of the content of the work. Fenelon's novel is written in prose, Trediakovsky's poem in hexameter. The style of the Fenelonian novel is just as radically updated. According to A.N. Sokolova, "compressed, strict, stingy with prose decorations, the prose of Fenelon did not meet the stylistic principles of the poetic epic as a high genre ... Trediakovsky poeticizes the prose style of Fenelon" . To this end, he introduces complex epithets into Tilemakhida, so characteristic of the Homeric epic and completely absent in Fenelon's novel: honey-flowing, multi-jet, sharp-severe, prudent, bleeding. There are more than a hundred such complex adjectives in Trediakovsky's poem. Following the example of complex epithets, complex nouns are created: translucence, fighting, good neighborliness, splendor.

Trediakovsky carefully preserved the enlightening pathos of Fenelon's novel. If in the Argenides it was about the justification of absolutism, which suppresses all kinds of disobedience, then in the Tilemakhis the supreme power becomes the subject of condemnation. It speaks of the despotism of rulers, their addiction to luxury and bliss, the inability of kings to distinguish virtuous people from greed and money-grubbers, flatterers who surround the throne and prevent monarchs from seeing the truth.

I asked him, what does tsarist sovereignty consist in?

He answered: the king is powerful in everything over the people,

But the laws over him in everything are powerful, of course.

"Tilemakhida" caused a different attitude towards itself both among contemporaries and descendants. In Tilemachide, Trediakovsky clearly demonstrated the variety of possibilities of the hexameter as an epic verse. Trediakovsky's experience was later used by N.I. Gnedich when translating the Iliad and V.A. Zhukovsky at work on the Odyssey.

3.3 Lomonosov M.V.

Lomonosov's first work dealing with problems of language was the Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry (1739, published in 1778), written back in Germany, where he substantiates the applicability of syllabo-tonic versification to the Russian language. According to Lomonosov, each literary genre should be written in a certain “calm”: “high calm” is “required” for heroic poems, odes, “prosaic speeches about important matters”; middle - for poetic messages, elegies, satires, descriptive prose, etc .; low - for comedies, epigrams, songs, "writings of ordinary affairs." "Shtils" were ordered, first of all, in the field of vocabulary, depending on the ratio of neutral (common for Russian and Church Slavonic languages), Church Slavonic and Russian colloquial words. “High calm” is characterized by a combination of Slavic words with neutral words, “middle calm” is built on the basis of neutral vocabulary with the addition of a certain number of Slavic words and colloquial words, “low calm” combines neutral and colloquial words. Such a program made it possible to overcome the Russian-Church Slavonic diglossia, which was still noticeable in the first half of the 18th century, and to create a single stylistically differentiated literary language. The theory of "three calms" had a significant impact on the development of the Russian literary language in the second half of the 18th century. up to the activities of the school N.M. Karamzin (since the 1790s), who headed for the convergence of the Russian literary language with the spoken language.

Lomonosov's poetic heritage includes solemn odes, philosophical ode-reflections "Morning reflection on God's majesty" (1743) and "Evening reflection on God's majesty" (1743), poetic transcriptions of psalms and the adjoining Ode chosen from Job (1751) , the unfinished heroic poem Peter the Great (1756–1761), satirical poems (Hymn to the Beard, 1756–1757, etc.), the philosophical “Conversation with Anacreon” (translation of the Anacreontic odes in conjunction with their own answers to them; 1757–1761), heroic idyll Polydor (1750), two tragedies, numerous poems on the occasion of various festivities, epigrams, parables, translated verses.

The pinnacle of Lomonosov's poetic work is his odes, written "on occasion" - in connection with significant events in the life of the state, for example, the accession to the throne of Empresses Elizabeth and Catherine II. Lomonosov used solemn occasions to create vivid and majestic pictures of the universe. The odes are replete with metaphors, hyperboles, allegories, rhetorical questions, and other tropes that create internal dynamics and sound richness of the verse, imbued with patriotic pathos, reflections on the future of Russia. In the Ode on the day of the accession to the All-Russian throne of Elizabeth Petrovna (1747), he wrote:

The sciences feed young men,

They give joy to the old,

Decorate in a happy life

Save in case of an accident.

Classicism marked an important stage in the development of Russian literature. At the time of the establishment of this literary trend, the historical task of transforming versification was solved. At the same time, a solid foundation was laid for the formation of the Russian literary language, eliminating the contradiction between the new content and the old forms of its expression, which was revealed with all its sharpness in the literature of the first three decades of the 18th century.

4. Russian classicism as a literary movement

As a literary trend, Russian classicism was distinguished by its internal complexity, heterogeneity, due to the difference in the ideological and literary and artistic features of the work of its founders. The leading genres that were developed by the representatives of classicism during the period of the establishment of this literary trend were, on the one hand, ode and tragedy, which propagated the ideals of enlightened absolutism in positive images, on the other hand, satirical genres that fought against political reaction, against the enemies of enlightenment, against social vices and etc.

Russian classicism did not shy away from national folklore. On the contrary, in the perception of the tradition of folk poetic culture in certain genres, he found incentives for his enrichment. Even at the origins of a new direction, undertaking a reform of Russian versification, Trediakovsky directly refers to the songs of the common people as a model that he followed in establishing his rules.

In the purely artistic realm, the Russian classicists faced such difficult tasks that their European counterparts did not know. French literature of the middle of the 17th century. already had a well-crafted literary language and secular genres that had developed over a long period of time. Russian literature at the beginning of the 18th century. had neither one nor the other. Therefore, the share of Russian writers of the second third of the XVIII century. the task was not only to create a new literary trend. They were supposed to reform the literary language, master genres unknown in Russia until that time. Each of them was a pioneer. Kantemir laid the foundation for Russian satire, Lomonosov legitimized the ode genre, Sumarokov acted as the author of tragedies and comedies. In the field of literary language reform, the main role belonged to Lomonosov.

The creative activity of Russian classicists was accompanied and supported by numerous theoretical works in the field of genres, literary language and versification. Trediakovsky wrote a treatise entitled "A New and Short Way to Add Russian Poetry", in which he substantiated the basic principles of a new, syllabic-tonic system. Lomonosov, in his discussion "On the Benefits of Church Books in the Russian Language," carried out a reform of the literary language and proposed the doctrine of the "three calms." Sumarokov in his treatise "Instruction to those who want to be writers" gave a description of the content and style of classic genres.

Russian classicism of the 18th century. went through two stages in its development. The first of them refers to the 30-50s. This is the formation of a new direction, when genres unknown until that time in Russia are born one after another, the literary language and versification are being reformed. The second stage falls on the last four decades of the 18th century. and is associated with the names of such writers as Fonvizin, Kheraskov, Derzhavin, Knyazhnin, Kapnist. In their work, Russian classicism most fully and widely revealed its ideological and artistic possibilities.

The originality of Russian classicism lies in the fact that in the era of its formation it combined the pathos of serving the absolutist state with the ideas of the early European Enlightenment. In 18th century France absolutism had already exhausted its progressive possibilities, and society was facing a bourgeois revolution, which was ideologically prepared by the French enlighteners. In Russia in the first decades of the XVIII century. absolutism was still at the head of progressive transformations for the country. Therefore, at the first stage of its development, Russian classicism adopted from the Enlightenment some of its social doctrines. These include primarily the idea of ​​enlightened absolutism. According to this theory, the state should be headed by a wise, “enlightened” monarch, who in his ideas stands above the selfish interests of individual estates and requires each of them to serve honestly for the benefit of the whole society. An example of such a ruler was for the Russian classicists Peter I, a unique personality in terms of mind, energy and broad state outlook.

In contrast to the French classicism of the XVII century. and in direct accordance with the Age of Enlightenment in Russian classicism of the 30-50s, a huge place was given to the sciences, knowledge, and enlightenment. The country has made the transition from church ideology to secular. Russia needed accurate, useful knowledge for society. Lomonosov spoke about the benefits of the sciences in almost all of his odes. The first satire of Kantemir “To your mind. On those who blaspheme the teaching." The very word "enlightened" meant not just an educated person, but a citizen who was helped by knowledge to realize his responsibility to society. "Ignorance" meant not only a lack of knowledge, but at the same time a lack of understanding of one's duty to the state. In the Western European educational literature of the 18th century, especially at the late stage of its development, "enlightenment" was determined by the degree of opposition to the existing order. In Russian classicism of the 30s-50s, "enlightenment" was measured by the measure of civil service to the absolutist state. The Russian classicists - Kantemir, Lomonosov, Sumarokov - were close to the struggle of the enlighteners against the church and church ideology. But if in the West it was about protecting the principle of religious tolerance, and in some cases atheism, then Russian enlighteners in the first half of the 18th century. denounced the ignorance and rude morals of the clergy, defended science and its adherents from persecution by church authorities. The first Russian classicists already knew the enlightening idea of ​​the natural equality of people. “The flesh in your servant is one-sided,” Cantemir pointed out to a nobleman who was beating a valet. Sumarokov reminded the “noble” class that “born from women and from ladies / Without exception, all forefather Adam.” But this thesis at that time was not yet embodied in the demand for the equality of all classes before the law. Cantemir, based on the principles of "natural law", called on the nobles to humane treatment of the peasants. Sumarokov, pointing to the natural equality of nobles and peasants, demanded from the "first" members of the fatherland of education and service to confirm their "nobility" and command position in the country.

If in Western European versions of classicism, and especially in the system of genres of French classicism, the dominant place belonged to the dramatic genre - tragedy and comedy, then in Russian classicism the genre dominant shifts to the area of ​​lyricism and satire.

Common genres with French classicism: tragedy, comedy, idyll, elegy , ode, sonnet, epigram, satire.

Conclusion

At the beginning of the 19th century, outstanding supporters of classicism still lived and wrote: M.M. Kheraskov (1733-1807) and Derzhavin (1743-1816). But their work, which has undergone a complex stylistic evolution, gradually declined.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Russian classicism as a literary movement was losing its former progressive features: civic enlightenment pathos, the affirmation of the human mind, opposition to religious ascetic scholasticism, a critical attitude towards monarchical despotism and the abuses of serfdom. But, nevertheless, the progressive traditions of classicism have been preserved in Russian literature for a long time in the works of leading writers. More and more, classicism became the arena of epigonism. However, the officially supported and promoted classicist direction, by inertia, still enjoyed great attention.

Bibliography

1.G.N. Pospelov, Problems of the historical development of literature. M., Education, 1972, p. 66.

2. Moiseeva G.N.. Lomonosov and ancient Russian literature .. / G.N. Moiseev. - L., Nauka, 1971, p. 9.

3. Russian literature of the XVIII century.- L., 1937, p.169

4. Kravchenko A.I. Culturology: Textbook for universities. - M., Academic project, 2001.

5.Culture of the New Time. Classicism // Electronic publication

Authors: N. T. Pakhsaryan (General Works, Literature), T. G. Yurchenko (Literature: Classicism in Russia), A. I. Kaplun (Architecture and Fine Arts), Yu. K. Zolotov (Architecture and Fine Arts: European Fine Arts), E. I. Gorfunkel (Theatre), P. V. Lutsker (Music)Authors: N. T. Pakhsaryan (General Works, Literature), T. G. Yurchenko (Literature: Classicism in Russia), A. I. Kaplun (Architecture and Fine Arts); >>

CLASSICISM (from Latin classicus - exemplary), style and art. direction in literature, architecture and art 17 - early. 19th centuries K. is successively associated with the era Renaissance; occupied, along with baroque, an important place in the culture of the 17th century; continued its development during the Enlightenment. The origin and spread of k. is associated with the strengthening of the absolute monarchy, with the influence of the philosophy of R. Descartes, with the development of the exact sciences. At the heart of rationalism aesthetics K. - the desire for balance, clarity, logicality of the artist. expressions (largely taken from the aesthetics of the Renaissance); belief in the existence of universal and eternal, not subject to historical. changes in the rules of art. creativity, which are interpreted as skill, skill, and not a manifestation of spontaneous inspiration or self-expression.

Having perceived the idea of ​​creativity that goes back to Aristotle as an imitation of nature, the classicists understood nature as an ideal norm, which has already been embodied in the works of ancient masters and writers: an orientation towards “beautiful nature”, transformed and ordered in accordance with the immutable laws of art, thus assumed imitation of antique models and even competition with them. Developing the idea of ​​art as a rational activity based on the eternal categories of “beautiful”, “appropriate”, etc., K. more than other artists. directions contributed to the emergence of aesthetics as a generalizing science of beauty.

Centre. the concept of K. - plausibility - did not imply an accurate reproduction of empirical. reality: the world is recreated not as it is, but as it should be. The preference for the universal norm as “due” to everything private, accidental, and concrete corresponds to the ideology of the absolutist state expressed by K., in which everything personal and private is subject to the indisputable will of the state. power. The classicist depicted not a specific, single person, but an abstract person in a situation of a universal, non-historical one. moral conflict; hence the orientation of the classicists to ancient mythology as the embodiment of universal knowledge about the world and man. Ethical ideal K. assumes, on the one hand, the subordination of the personal to the general, passions - duty, reason, resistance to the vicissitudes of life; on the other - restraint in the manifestation of feelings, compliance with the measure, appropriateness, the ability to please.

K. strictly subordinated creativity to the rules of the genre-style hierarchy. "High" (for example, epic, tragedy, ode - in literature; historical, religious, mythological genre, portrait - in painting) and "low" (satire, comedy, fable; still life in painting) genres were distinguished, which corresponded to a certain style, range of topics and characters; a clear delineation of the tragic and the comic, the sublime and the base, the heroic and the mundane was prescribed.

From Ser. 18th century K. was gradually replaced by new currents - sentimentalism , pre-romanticism, romanticism. Traditions of K. in con. 19 - beg. 20th century were resurrected in neoclassicism .

The term "classicism", which goes back to the concept of classics (exemplary writers), was first used in 1818 by the Italian. critic G. Visconti. It was widely used in the polemics of the classicists and romantics, and among the romantics (J. de Stael, V. Hugo, and others) it had a negative connotation: classicism and the classics, which imitated antiquity, were opposed to the innovative romanticism. literature In literary criticism and art history, the concept of "K." began to be actively used after the works of scientists cultural and historical school and G. Wölfflin.

Stylistic trends similar to those of the 17th and 18th centuries are seen by some scholars in other epochs as well; in this case, the concept of "K." is interpreted in expand. sense, denoting stylistic. constant, periodically updated on decomp. stages of the history of art and literature (for example, “ancient K.”, “Renaissance K.”).

Literature

The origins of lit. K. - in normative poetics (Yu. Ts. Scaliger, L. Castelvetro, etc.) and in Italian. literature of the 16th century, where a genre system was created, correlated with the system of linguistic styles and oriented towards antique samples. The highest flourishing of K. is associated with the French. lit-roy 17th c. The founder of the poetics of K. was F. Malerbe, who carried out the regulation of lit. language based on live colloquial speech; the reform he carried out was consolidated by Franz. academy. In its most complete form, the principles of lit. K. were outlined in the treatise "Poetic Art" by N. Boileau (1674), who generalized the artist. practice of his contemporaries.

Classical writers regard literature as an important mission of translating into words and conveying to the reader the requirements of nature and reason, as a way of "teaching while entertaining." Lit-ra K. is striving for a clear expression of significant thought, meaning (“... meaning always lives in my creation” - F. von Logau), she refuses stylistic. sophistication, rhetoric jewelry. The classicists preferred laconicism, metaphoricism to verbosity. complexity - simplicity and clarity, extravagant - decent. Following the established norms did not mean, however, that the classicists encouraged pedantry and ignored the role of the artist. intuition. Although the rules were presented to the classicists as a way to keep creativity. freedom within the boundaries of the mind, they understood the importance of intuitive insight, forgiving talent for deviation from the rules, if it is appropriate and artistically effective.

The characters of characters in K. are built on the allocation of one dominant feature, which contributes to their transformation into universal universal types. Favorite collisions are the clash of duty and feelings, the struggle of reason and passion. In the center of the works of the classicists - heroic. personality and at the same time a well-bred person who stoically seeks to overcome his own. passions and affects, to curb or at least realize them (like the heroes of the tragedies of J. Racine). Descartes' "I think, therefore, I exist" plays in the attitude of the characters of K. the role of not only philosophical and intellectual, but also ethical. principle.

Based on Lit. theories of K. - hierarchical. genre system; analytical breeding for different works, even artistic. worlds, "high" and "low" heroes, and that is combined with the desire to ennoble the "low" genres; for example, rid satire of rough burlesque, comedy - of farcical features ("high comedy" Molière).

Ch. a place in the literature of K. was occupied by a drama based on the rule of three unities (see. Three unities theory). Tragedy became its leading genre, the highest achievements of which are the works of P. Corneille and J. Racine; in the first, tragedy becomes heroic, in the second, lyrical. character. Dr. "high" genres play a much smaller role in literature. process (the unsuccessful experience of J. Chaplin in the genre of an epic poem was subsequently parodied by Voltaire; solemn odes were written by F. Malherbe and N. Boileau). Meaning at the same time. "low" genres are developing: heroic poem and satire (M. Renier, Boileau), fable (J. de La Fontaine), comedy. Small didactic genres are being cultivated. prose - aphorisms (maxims), "characters" (B. Pascal, F. de La Rochefoucauld, J. de La Bruyère); oratorical prose (J. B. Bossuet). Although the theory of K. did not include the novel in the system of genres worthy of serious criticism. comprehension, psychological masterpiece M. M. Lafayette "Princess of Cleves" (1678) is considered an example of classicism. novel.

In con. 17th century there has been a decline. K., but archeological. interest in antiquity in the 18th century, the excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, the creation of I.I. Winkelmann the ideal image of the Greek antiquity as "noble simplicity and calm grandeur" contributed to its new rise in the Enlightenment. Ch. Voltaire was the representative of the new C., in whose work rationalism, the cult of reason served to justify not the norms of absolutist statehood, but the right of the individual to be free from the claims of church and state. Enlightenment K., actively interacting with other lit. trends of the era, is not based on "rules", but rather on the "enlightened taste" of the public. The appeal to antiquity becomes a way of expressing the heroism of Franz. revolutions of the 18th century in the poetry of A. Chenier.

in France in the 17th century. K. developed into a powerful and consistent artist. system, had a noticeable impact on the literature of the Baroque. In Germany, poetry, having arisen as a conscious cultural effort to create a “correct” and “perfect” poetic literature worthy of other European literatures. school (M. Opitz), on the contrary, the baroque was drowned out, the style of which was more in line with the tragic. the era of the Thirty Years' War; a belated attempt by I.K. Gottsched in the 1730s–40s. send him. lit-ru along the path of the classic. canons caused fierce controversy and was generally rejected. Independent. aesthetic phenomenon is Weimar classicism J. W. Goethe and F. Schiller. In Great Britain, early K. is associated with the work of J. Dryden; its further development proceeded in line with the Enlightenment (A. Pope, S. Johnson). To con. 17th century K. in Italy existed in parallel with Rococo and sometimes intertwined with it (for example, in the work of the poets of Arcadia - A. Zeno, P. Metastasio, P. Ya. Martello, S. Maffei); Enlightenment culture is represented by the work of V. Alfieri.

In Russia, k. was established in the 1730s-1750s. under the influence of Western European. K. and the ideas of the Enlightenment; however, it clearly traces the connection with the baroque. Distinguish. features of Russian K. - pronounced didacticism, accusatory, socially critical. orientation, national-patriotic. pathos, reliance on nar. creativity. One of the first principles of K. in Russian. the soil was transferred by A. D. Kantemir. In his satires, he followed N. Boileau, but, creating generalized images of human vices, he adapted them to the fatherland. reality. Kantemir introduced into Russian. lit-ru new poems. genres: transcriptions of psalms, fables, heroics. poem ("Petris", not finished). The first example of a classic laudatory ode was created by V.K. Trediakovsky(“A solemn ode on the surrender of the city of Gdansk”, 1734), which accompanied her theoretical. “Reasoning about the ode in general” (both one and the other - following Boileau). The influence of baroque poetics marked the odes of M. V. Lomonosov. The most complete and consistent Russian. K. is represented by the work of A. P. Sumarokov. Outlining the main position of the classic doctrine written in imitation of Boileau's treatise "Epistole on Poetry" (1747), Sumarokov sought to follow them in his works: tragedies oriented towards the work of the French. classicists of the 17th century. and the dramaturgy of Voltaire, but converted preim. to the events of the national history; partly - in comedies, the model for which was the work of Moliere; in satires, as well as fables that brought him the glory of the "northern Lafontaine". He also developed the genre of the song, which was not mentioned by Boileau, but was included by Sumarokov himself in the list of poetic. genres. Until con. 18th century the classification of genres proposed by Lomonosov in the preface to the collected works of 1757 - “On the Usefulness of Church Books in the Russian Language”, which correlated three styles theory with specific genres, linking heroic with a high "calm". poem, ode, solemn speeches; with the middle - tragedy, satire, elegy, eclogue; with low - comedy, song, epigram. An example of a heroic poem was created by V. I. Maikov (“Elisha, or the Irritated Bacchus”, 1771). The first completed heroic “Rossiyada” by M. M. Kheraskov (1779) became an epic. In con. 18th century classic principles. dramaturgy manifested itself in the work of N. P. Nikolev, Ya. B. Knyazhnin, V. V. Kapnist. At the turn of the 18-19 centuries. K. is gradually being replaced by new trends in lit. developments associated with pre-romanticism and sentimentalism, but for some time retains its influence. Its traditions can be traced back to the 1800s–20s. in the work of Radishchev poets (A. Kh. Vostokov, I. P. Pnin, V. V. Popugaev), in lit. criticism (A. F. Merzlyakov), in literary and aesthetic. program and genre-stylistic. practice of the Decembrist poets, in the early work of A. S. Pushkin.

Architecture and fine arts

K. trends in Europe. lawsuit-ve were outlined already in the 2nd floor. 16th century in Italy - in archit. theory and practice A. Palladio, theoretical. treatises by G. da Vignola, S. Serlio; more consistently - in the writings of J. P. Bellori (17th century), as well as in the aesthetic. academic standards Bolognese school. However, in the 17th century K., which developed in acute polemic. interaction with the Baroque, only in French. artistic culture has developed into a coherent stylistic system. Prem. in France, K. 18 was also formed - early. 19th century, which became a pan-European style (the latter is often referred to as neoclassicism in foreign art history). The principles of rationalism underlying the aesthetics of K. determined the view of the artist. the work as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensually perceived life. Orientation to a reasonable beginning, to enduring patterns, also determined the normative requirements of the aesthetics of K., the regulation of the artist. rules, a strict hierarchy of genres in depict. art-ve (the “high” genre includes works on mythological and historical subjects, as well as “ideal landscape” and ceremonial portrait; the “low” genre includes still life, everyday genre, etc.). Consolidation of the theoretical The doctrines of K. were promoted by the activities of the royal academies founded in Paris - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671).

Architecture K., in contrast to the baroque with its dramatic. conflict of forms, energetic interaction of volume and spatial environment, is based on the principle of harmony and internal. completion as a separate buildings and the ensemble. The characteristic features of this style are the desire for clarity and unity of the whole, symmetry and balance, certainty of plasticity. forms and spatial intervals that create a calm and solemn rhythm; a system of proportioning based on multiple ratios of integers (a single module that determines the patterns of shaping). The constant appeal of the masters of K. to the heritage of ancient architecture meant not only the use of its otd. motives and elements, but also the comprehension of the general laws of its architectonics. The basis of architecture. language K. became architectural order, proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; in buildings, it is used in such a way that it does not obscure the overall structure of the building, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. The interiors of K. are characterized by clarity of spatial divisions, softness of colors. Widely using perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, masters of K. fundamentally separated the illusory space from the real.

An important place in the architecture of Kazakhstan belongs to the problems urban planning. Projects of "ideal cities" are being developed, a new type of regular absolutist city-residence is being created (Versailles). K. strives to continue the traditions of antiquity and the Renaissance, laying in the basis of his decisions the principle of proportionality to man and at the same time - the scale that gives archit. image of a heroically upbeat sound. And although the rhetoric the splendor of the palace decor comes into conflict with this dominant trend, the stable figurative structure of K. retains the unity of style, no matter how diverse its modifications in the process of historical. development.

Formation of K. in French. architecture is associated with the work of J. Lemercier and F. Mansart. The appearance of buildings and builds. receptions at first resemble the architecture of castles of the 16th century; a decisive turning point occurred in the work of L. Levo - primarily in the creation of the palace and park ensemble of Vaux-le-Viscount, with a solemn enfilade of the palace itself, imposing murals by C. Lebrun and the most characteristic expression of new principles - the regular parterre park of A. Le Nôtre. East became the program product of architecture of K. facade of the Louvre, carried out (since the 1660s) according to the plan of C. Perrault (it is characteristic that the projects of J. L. Bernini and others in the Baroque style were rejected). In the 1660s L. Levo, A. Lenotre and C. Lebrun began to create an ensemble of Versailles, where the ideas of K. are expressed with particular completeness. From 1678 the construction of Versailles was led by J. Hardouin-Mansart; according to his projects, the palace was significantly expanded (wings were attached), the center. the terrace was converted into the Mirror Gallery - the most representative part of the interior. He also built the Grand Trianon Palace and other structures. The ensemble of Versailles is characterized by a rare stylistic. integrity: even the jets of fountains were connected into a static form, similar to a column, and trees and shrubs were trimmed in the form of geometric shapes. figures. The symbolism of the ensemble is subordinated to the glorification of the "Sun King" Louis XIV, but its artistic and figurative basis was the apotheosis of reason, imperiously transforming the natural elements. At the same time, the emphasized decorativeness of the interiors justifies the use of the stylistic term “baroque classicism” in relation to Versailles.

In the 2nd floor. 17th century new methods of planning are emerging, providing for organic. mountain connection. buildings with elements of the natural environment, the creation of open areas, spatially merging with the street or the embankment, ensemble solutions for the key elements of the mountains. structures (Square of Louis the Great, now Vendome, and Sq. Pobedy; architectural ensemble Homes for the disabled, all - J. Hardouin-Mansart), triumphal entrance arches (Saint-Denis gate designed by N. F. Blondel; all - in Paris).

Traditions of C. in France in the 18th century. almost never interrupted, but in the 1st floor. centuries, the rococo style prevailed. All R. 18th century K.'s principles were transformed in the spirit of the aesthetics of the Enlightenment. In architecture, the appeal to "naturalness" put forward the requirement for constructive justification of the order elements of the composition, in the interior - the need to develop a flexible layout of a comfortable residential building. The landscape (landscape) environment became the ideal environment for the house. Huge influence on K. 18 century. had a rapid development of knowledge about the Greek. and Rome. antiquities (excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.); The works of J. I. Winkelman, J. W. Goethe, and F. Militsia made their contribution to the theory of cosmic calculus. In the French K. 18th century new architects were determined. types: an exquisitely intimate mansion ("hotel"), a ceremonial society. building, open area connecting the main. highways of the city (Louis XV Square, now Concorde Square, in Paris, architect J. A. Gabriel; he also built the Petit Trianon Palace in Versailles Park, combining the harmonious clarity of forms with the lyrical refinement of the drawing). J. J. Souflo carried out his project c. Sainte-Genevieve in Paris, based on the experience of the classic. architecture.

In the era preceding Franz. revolutions of the 18th century, architecture manifested a striving for severe simplicity, a bold search for the monumental geometrism of a new, orderless architecture (K. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bulle, J. J. Lekeu). These searches (noted also by the influence of the architect. Etchings J. B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the late phase of K. - French. Empire (1st third of the 19th century), in which lush representativeness is growing (C. Percier, P. F. L. Fontaine, J. F. Chalgrin).

At 17 - beg. 18th century K. was formed in the architecture of Holland (J. van Kampen, P. Post), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it. Cross-links with French and goll. K., as well as with the early Baroque, affected the short heyday of K. in the architecture of Sweden at the end of the 17th - early. 18th century (N. Tessin the Younger). At 18 - beg. 19th centuries K. also established itself in Italy (G. Piermarini), Spain (X. de Villanueva), Poland (J. Kamsetzer, H. P. Aigner), and the USA (T. Jefferson, J. Hoban). For him. architecture K. 18 - 1st floor. 19th centuries the strict forms of the Palladian F. W. Erdmansdorf, the “heroic” Hellenism of C. G. Langhans, D. and F. Gilly, and the historicism of L. von Klenze are characteristic. In the work of K.F. Shinkel the severe monumentality of the images is combined with the search for new functional solutions.

K ser. 19th century the leading role of K. is coming to naught; to replace him historical styles(see also neo-greek style, Eclecticism). At the same time, the artist the K. tradition comes to life in the neoclassicism of the 20th century.

fine arts. regulatory; its figurative structure is characterized by clear signs of social utopia. The iconography of K. is dominated by ancient legends, heroic. deeds, historical plots, that is, interest in the fate of human communities, in the "anatomy of power." Not satisfied with a simple "portraiting of nature," K. artists strive to rise above the concrete, the individual - to the universally significant. The classicists defended their idea of ​​the artist. truth, which did not coincide with the naturalism of Caravaggio or small Dutch. The world of rational deeds and bright feelings in the art of K. towered over the imperfect everyday life as the embodiment of a dream of the desired harmony of being. Orientation to the lofty ideal gave rise to the choice of "beautiful nature". K. avoids the casual, the deviant, the grotesque, the crude, the repulsive. Tectonic clarity of the classic architecture corresponds to a clear delineation of plans in sculpture and painting. K.'s plastic surgery, as a rule, is designed for fixers. point of view, differs in smoothness of forms. The moment of movement in the poses of figures usually does not violate their plasticity. isolation and calm statuary. In painting, K. Osn. form elements - line and chiaroscuro; local colors clearly reveal objects and landscape plans, which brings the spatial composition of the painting closer to the composition of the stage. sites.

The founder and greatest master of K. 17th century. was French. thin N. Poussin, whose paintings are marked by the elevation of philosophical and ethical. content, rhythmic harmony. building and color. High development in the painting of K. 17th century. received an “ideal landscape” (N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, G. Duguet), which embodied the dream of the classicists of the “golden age” of mankind. Most means. French masters. K. in sculpture 17 - beg. 18th century were P. Puget (heroic theme), F. Girardon (search for harmony and laconism of forms). In the 2nd floor. 18th century French sculptors again turned to socially significant topics and monumental solutions (J. B. Pigalle, M. Clodion, E. M. Falcone, J. A. Houdon). Citizenship pathos and lyricism were combined in mythological. paintings by J. M. Vienne, decorative landscapes by J. Robert. Painting so-called. revolutionary K. in France is represented by the works of J. L. David, historical. and whose portrait images are marked by courageous drama. In the late French period K. painting, despite the appearance of otd. major masters (J. O. D. Ingres), degenerates into an official apologetic. or salon art .

International Center K. 18 - beg. 19th centuries became Rome, where the suit-ve dominated the academic. a tradition with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, which is not uncommon for academicism (painters A. R. Mengs, J. A. Koch, V. Camuccini, sculptors A. Canova and B. Thorvaldsen). In picture claim-ve it. K., contemplative in spirit, stand out portraits of A. and V. Tishbeinov, mythological. cardboards by A. Ya. Carstens, plastics by I. G. Shadov, K. D. Raukh; in arts and crafts - D. Roentgen's furniture. In the UK, graphics and sculpture by J. Flaxman are close to K., in arts and crafts - ceramics by J. Wedgwood and the masters of the factory in Derby.

The heyday of K. in Russia belongs to the last third of the 18th - the first third of the 19th centuries, although already early. 18th century noted creative. appeal to the city planner. French experience. K. (the principle of symmetrical-axial planning systems in the construction of St. Petersburg). Rus. K. embodied a new, unprecedented for Russia in scope and ideological content of historical. heyday of the Russian secular culture. Early Russian. K. in architecture (1760–70s; J. B. Wallen Delamotte, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) still retains plasticity. enrichment and dynamics of forms inherent in baroque and rococo.

The architects of the mature period of K. (1770–90s; V. I. Bazhenov, M. F. Kazakov, I. E. Starov) created the classic. types of the capital's palace-estate and a comfortable residential building, which have become models in the extensive construction of suburban noble estates and in the new, front building of cities. The art of the ensemble in country park estates is a major contribution of the Rus. K. in the world art. culture. In the estate construction, the Russian. a variant of Palladianism (N. A. Lvov), a new type of chamber palace developed (C. Cameron, J. Quarenghi). Feature of the Russian K. - an unprecedented scale of the state. urban planning: regular plans were developed for more than 400 cities, ensembles of the centers of Kaluga, Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl, etc. were formed; the practice of "regulating" the mountains. plans, as a rule, successively combined the principles of K. with the historically established planning structure of the old Russian city. Turn of the 18th–19th centuries marked by the largest urban planners. achievements in both capitals. A grandiose ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg was formed (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. F. Thomas de Thomon, later K. I. Rossi). On other urban planners. In the beginning, “classical Moscow” was formed, which was built up in the period of its restoration after the fire of 1812 with small mansions with cozy interiors. The beginnings of regularity here were consistently subordinated to the general pictorial freedom of the spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of late Moscow. K. - D. I. Gilardi, O. I. Bove, A. G. Grigoriev. Buildings of the 1st third of the 19th century. belong to the Russian style. Empire (sometimes called Alexander classicism).

In picture art-ve development of Russian. K. is closely connected with St. Petersburg. Academy of Arts (founded in 1757). Sculpture is represented by "heroic" monumental-decorative plasticity, which forms a finely thought-out synthesis with architecture, filled with civil. pathos monuments imbued with elegich. enlightenment with tombstones, easel plastics (I. P. Prokofiev, F. G. Gordeev, M. I. Kozlovsky, I. P. Martos, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov, I. I. Terebenev). In painting, K. most clearly manifested itself in the works of the historical. and mythological. genre (A. P. Losenko, G. I. Ugryumov, I. A. Akimov, A. I. Ivanov, A. E. Egorov, V. K. Shebuev, early A. A. Ivanov; in scenography - in creativity P. di G. Gonzago). Some features of K. are also inherent in the sculptural portraits of F. I. Shubin, in painting - portraits of D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, landscapes by F. M. Matveev. In arts and crafts, Russian. K. stand out artist. modeling and carved decor in architecture, bronze products, cast iron, porcelain, crystal, furniture, damask fabrics, etc.

Theatre

The formation of theater theater began in France in the 1630s. The activating and organizing role in this process belonged to literature, thanks to which the theater established itself among the "high" arts. The French saw samples of theatrical art in Italian. "learned theater" of the Renaissance. Since the court society was the legislator of tastes and cultural values, then on the stage. the style was also influenced by court ceremonial and festivities, ballets, and ceremonial receptions. The principles of theatrical cinematography were developed on the Parisian stage: in the Marais theater headed by G. Mondori (1634), in the Palais-Cardinal (1641, from 1642 the Palais-Royal) built by Cardinal Richelieu, whose arrangement met the high requirements of the Italian. scenic technology; in the 1640s The Burgundy Hotel became the site of theatrical K.. Simultaneous decoration gradually, towards the middle. 17th century, was replaced by a picturesque and uniform perspective scenery (palace, temple, house, etc.); a curtain appeared, which rose and fell at the beginning and at the end of the performance. The scene was framed like a painting. The game took place only on the proscenium; the performance was centered by several figures of protagonist characters. Archite. a backdrop, a single scene of action, a combination of acting and pictorial plans, a common three-dimensional mise-en-scene contributed to the creation of the illusion of plausibility. In the stage K. 17th century there was a concept of the "fourth wall". “He acts like this,” F. E. d’Aubignac wrote about the actor (“The Practice of the Theater”, 1657), “as if the audience does not exist at all: his characters act and speak as if they really are kings, and not Mondori and Belrose, as if they were in the palace of Horace in Rome, and not in the Burgundy hotel in Paris, and as if only those who are present on the stage (i.e., in the depicted place) see and hear them.

In the high tragedy of C. (P. Corneille, J. Racine), the dynamics, entertainment, and adventure plots of A. Hardy’s plays (the repertoire of V. Leconte’s first permanent French troupe in the first third of the 17th century) were replaced by static and in-depth attention to the spiritual world of the hero, the motives of his behavior. The new dramaturgy demanded changes in the performing arts. The actor became the embodiment of ethical. and aesthetic the ideal of the era, creating a close-up portrait of a contemporary with his game; his costume, stylized as antiquity, corresponded to modern. fashion, plastic obeyed the requirements of nobility and grace. The actor had to have the pathos of a speaker, a sense of rhythm, musicality (for the actress M. Chanmelet, J. Racine inscribed notes above the lines of the role), the claim of an eloquent gesture, the skills of a dancer, even physical. power. Dramaturgy K. contributed to the emergence of the stage school. recitation, which united the entire set of performing techniques (reading, gesture, facial expressions) and became the main. will express. means of the French actor. A. Vitez called the declamation of the 17th century. "prosodic architecture". The performance was built in a logical way. interaction of monologues. With the help of the word, the technique of excitation of emotion and its control was worked out; the success of the performance depended on the strength of the voice, its sonority, timbre, possession of colors and intonations.

The division of theatrical genres into "high" (tragedy in the Burgundy hotel) and "low" (comedy in the "Palais Royal" of the time of Molière), the emergence of roles fixed the hierarchical. the structure of the theater K. Remaining within the boundaries of "ennobled" nature, the design of the performance and the outlines of the image were determined by the individuality of the major actors: the manner of recitation by J. Floridor was more natural than that of the excessively posing Belrose; M. Chanmelet was characterized by a sonorous and melodious "recitation", and Montfleury did not know equal in the affects of passion. The conception of the canon of theatrical cinema that developed later, which consisted of standard gestures (surprise was depicted with hands raised to shoulder level and palms facing the audience; disgust - with the head turned to the right, and hands repelling the object of contempt, etc.). ), refers to the era of decline and degeneration of style.

In the 20th century French the director's theater became close to the European one, the stage. style lost nat. specifics. Nevertheless, it means. events in French theater in the 20th century Correlate with the traditions of C.: performances by J. Copeau, J. L. Barrot, L. Jouvet, J. Vilard, Vitez's experiments with the classics of the 17th century, productions by R. Planchon, J. Desart, and others.

Lost in the 18th century. the importance of the dominant style in France, K. found successors in other European countries. countries. J. W. Goethe consistently introduced the principles of cinematography in the Weimar theater he directed. Actress and entrepreneur F. K. Neuber and actor K. Eckhoff in Germany, eng. actors T. Betterton, J. Quinn, J. Kemble, S. Siddons promoted K., but their efforts, despite their personal creativity. achievements proved to be of little effect and were ultimately rejected. Stage K. became the object of a pan-European controversy and thanks to the German, and after them the Russian. Theorists of the theater received the definition of "false-classical theater".

musical tragedy 2nd floor. 17 - 1st floor. 18th century (creative community of librettist F. Kino and comp. J. B. Lully, operas and opera-ballets J. F. Rameau) and in Italian. opera series, which has taken a leading position among musical drama. genres of the 18th century (in Italy, England, Austria, Germany, Russia). The rise of the French music The tragedy occurred at the beginning of the crisis of absolutism, when the ideals of heroism and citizenship of the period of the struggle for a nationwide state were replaced by the spirit of festivity and ceremonial officialdom, an attraction to luxury and refined hedonism. The sharpness of the conflict of feelings and duty typical for K. in the conditions of mythological. or knightly-legendary plot of muses. tragedy decreased (especially in comparison with the tragedy in the dramatic theater). The requirements of genre purity (the absence of comedic and everyday episodes), unity of action (often also place and time), and a “classical” five-act composition (often with a prologue) are associated with the norms of cinematography. Centre. position in music dramaturgy is occupied by recitative - the element closest to rationalistic. verbal-conceptual logic. In intonation. sphere is dominated by those associated with natures. human speech declamatory-pathetic. formulas (interrogative, imperative, etc.), however, are excluded rhetorical. and symbolic. figures characteristic of baroque opera. Extensive choral and ballet scenes with fantastic and pastoral-idyllic. theme, the general orientation towards spectacle and entertainment (which eventually became dominant) was more in line with the traditions of the Baroque than with the principles of classicism.

Traditional for Italy were the cultivation of singing virtuosity and the development of a decorative element inherent in the opera seria genre. In line with the requirements of K., put forward by some representatives of Rome. Academy "Arcadia", North-Italian. librettists 18th century (F. Silvani, G. Fridzhimelika-Roberti, A. Zeno, P. Pariati, A. Salvi, A. Piovene) expelled the comedian from serious opera. and everyday episodes, plot motifs associated with the intervention of the supernatural or fantastic. forces; the circle of plots was limited to historical and historical-legendary, moral and ethical were brought to the fore. problems. In the center of art. concepts of the early opera seria - sublime heroic. the image of the monarch, less often the state. figure, courtier, epic. a hero demonstrating positive. qualities of an ideal personality: wisdom, tolerance, generosity, devotion to duty, heroic. enthusiasm. The traditional Italian was preserved. operas have a 3-act structure (5-act dramas remained experiments), but the number of actors decreased, intonations were typified in music. will express. means, forms of overture and aria, structure of vocal parts. A type of dramaturgy, entirely subordinate to music. tasks, was developed (since the 1720s) by P. Metastasio, whose name is associated with the apex stage in the history of the opera seria. In his stories, the classicist pathos is noticeably weakened. The conflict situation, as a rule, arises and deepens because of the protracted "delusion" of Ch. actors, and not because of a real conflict of interests or principles. However, a special predilection for an idealized expression of feelings, for the noble impulses of the human soul, albeit far from a strict rational justification, provided an exception. the popularity of Metastasio's libretto for over half a century.

The culmination in the development of music. K. of the Enlightenment (in the 1760s–70s) became creative. the commonwealth of K. V. Gluck and the librettist R. Calzabidgi. In Gluck's operas and ballets, classicist tendencies were expressed in an accentuated attention to the ethical. problems, the development of ideas about heroism and generosity (in the musical dramas of the Parisian period - in a direct appeal to the theme of duty and feelings). The norms of K. also corresponded to genre purity, the desire for max. concentration of action, reduced to almost one dramatic. collisions, strict selection will express. funds in accordance with the objectives of a particular drama. situations, the ultimate limitation of a decorative element, a virtuoso beginning in singing. The enlightening nature of the interpretation of the images was reflected in the interweaving of the noble qualities inherent in the classic heroes, with the naturalness and freedom of expression of feelings, reflecting the influence of sentimentalism.

In the 1780s–90s. in French music theater find expression of the trend of the revolution. K., reflecting the ideals of Franz. revolutions of the 18th century Genetically related to the previous stage and presented by Ch. arr. a generation of composers - followers of Gluck's opera reform (E. Megül, L. Cherubini), revolutionary. K. emphasized above all the civic, tyrannical pathos that had previously been characteristic of the tragedies of P. Corneille and Voltaire. Unlike the works of the 1760s and 70s, in which the resolution of the tragic. the conflict was difficult to achieve and required the intervention of external forces (tradition "deus ex machina" - Latin "God from the machine"), for the writings of the 1780s-1790s. became a characteristic denouement through the heroic. an act (refusal of obedience, protest, often an act of retribution, the murder of a tyrant, etc.), which created a bright and effective release of tension. This type of dramaturgy formed the basis of the genre "opera of salvation" that appeared in the 1790s. at the intersection of the traditions of classical opera and realistic. bourgeois drama .

In Russia, in music. In the theater, the original manifestations of k. are single (the opera “Cefal and Prokris” by F. Araya, the melodrama “Orpheus” by E. I. Fomin, the music by O. A. Kozlovsky for the tragedies of V. A. Ozerov, A. A. Shakhovsky and A. N . Gruzintseva).

Relative to comic opera, as well as instrumental and vocal music of the 18th century, not associated with theatrical action, the term "K." applied in means. measure conditionally. It is sometimes used in expand. sense to denote the initial stage of the classical-romantic. era, gallant and classical styles (see Art. Vienna Classical School, Classics in music), in particular, in order to avoid evaluativeness (for example, when translating the German term “Klassik” or in the expression “Russian classicism”, which applies to all Russian music of the 2nd half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. ).

In the 19th century K. in music. theater gives way to romanticism, although otd. features of classicist aesthetics are sporadically revived (by G. Spontini, G. Berlioz, S. I. Taneyev and others). In the 20th century classical artists. principles were resurrected in neoclassicism.

Time of occurrence.

In Europe- XVII-early XIX century

The end of the 17th century was a period of decline.

Classicism was revived during the Enlightenment - Voltaire, M. Chenier and others. After the French Revolution, with the collapse of rationalist ideas, classicism declined, and romanticism became the dominant style of European art.

In Russia- in the 2nd quarter of the 18th century.

Place of origin.

France. (P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. La Fontaine, J. B. Molière, etc.)

Representatives of Russian literature, works.

A. D. Kantemir (satire "On those who blaspheme the teaching", fables)

V.K. Trediakovsky (novel "Riding to the Island of Love", poems)

M. V. Lomonosov (poem "Conversation with Anacreon", "Ode on the day of accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, 1747"

A. P. Sumarokov, (tragedies "Khorev", "Sinav and Truvor")

Ya. B. Knyazhnin (tragedies "Dido", "Rosslav")

G. R. Derzhavin (ode "Felitsa")

representatives of world literature.

P. Corneille (tragedies "Sid", "Horace", "Cinna".

J. Racine (tragedies Phaedra, Mithridates)

Voltaire (tragedies Brutus, Tancred)

J.B. Molière (comedies "Tartuffe", "The tradesman in the nobility")

N. Boileau (treatise in verse "Poetic Art")

J. Lafontaine (fables).

Classicism from fr. classicisme, from lat. classicus - exemplary.

features of classicism.

• Purpose of art- moral influence on the upbringing of noble feelings.
• Reliance on ancient art(hence the name of the style), which was based on the principle of "imitation of nature".
• Based on the principle rationalism((from Latin "ratio" - mind), a view of a work of art as an artificial creation - consciously created, reasonably organized, logically built.
• Cult of the mind(belief in the omnipotence of reason and in the fact that the world can be rearranged on reasonable grounds).
• Headship public interest over private, the predominance of civil, patriotic motives, the cult of moral duty. Affirmation of positive values ​​and state ideal.
• Main conflict classic works - this is the struggle of the hero between mind and feeling. A positive hero must always make a choice in favor of reason (for example, choosing between love and the need to completely surrender to the service of the state, he must choose the latter), and a negative one - in favor of feelings.
• Personality is the highest value of being.
• Harmony content and form.
• Compliance with the rule in a dramatic work "three unities": unity of place, time, action.
• The division of heroes into positive and negative. The hero had to embody any one character trait: stinginess, hypocrisy, kindness, hypocrisy, etc.
• Strict hierarchy of genres, mixing of genres was not allowed:

"high"- epic poem, tragedy, ode;

"middle" - didactic poetry, epistole, satire, love poem;

"low"- fable, comedy, farce.

• The purity of the language (in high genres - high vocabulary, in low genres - vernacular);
• Simplicity, harmony, logical presentation.
• Interest in the eternal, unchanging, the desire to find typological features. Therefore, the images are devoid of individual features, since they are designed primarily to capture stable, generic, enduring signs over time.
• Socio-educational function of literature. Education of a harmonious personality.

Features of Russian classicism.

Russian literature mastered the style and genre forms of classicism, but it also had its own characteristics, distinguished by its originality.

• The state (and not the individual) was declared the highest value) in conjunction with belief in the theory of enlightened absolutism. According to the theory of enlightened absolutism, the state should be headed by a wise, enlightened monarch, who requires everyone to serve for the benefit of society.
• General patriotic pathos Russian classicism. Patriotism of Russian writers, their interest in the history of their homeland. All of them study Russian history, write works on national, historical themes.
• Humanity, since the direction was formed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment.
• Human nature is selfish, subject to passions, that is, feelings that oppose reason, but at the same time education.
• Affirmation of the natural equality of all people.
• Main conflict between the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie.
• In the center of the works are not only the personal experiences of the characters, but also social problems.
• satirical focus- an important place is occupied by such genres as satire, fable, comedy, satirically depicting specific phenomena of Russian life;
• The predominance of national-historical themes over the antique. In Russia, “antiquity” was domestic history.
• High level of genre development odes(by M. V. Lomonosov and G. R. Derzhavin);
• The plot is based, as a rule, on a love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover.
• At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs.

Three periods of classicism in Russian literature.

1. 30-50s of the 18th century (the birth of classicism, the creation of literature, the national language, the flowering of the ode genre - M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarkov, etc.)
2. 60s - end of the 18th century (the main task of literature is the education of a person-citizen, the service of a person for the benefit of societies, exposing the vices of people, the flowering of satire - N.R. Derzhavin, D.I. Fonviin).
3. The end of the XVIII-beginning of the XIX century (the gradual crisis of classicism, the emergence of sentimentalism, the strengthening of realistic tendencies, national motifs, the image of the ideal nobleman - N.R. Derzhavin, I.A. Krylov, etc.)

The material was prepared by: Melnikova Vera Alexandrovna.