Man and higher apes: similarities and differences. Differences and similarities between humans and anthropomorphic apes

Humans and monkeys share about 98 percent genetic similarity, but even the external differences between them are more than obvious. Monkeys hear differently, see differently and physically develop faster.

Structure

Many of the features that distinguish humans from monkeys are immediately noticeable. For example, upright posture. Despite the fact that gorillas can move on their hind legs, this is not a natural process for them. A flexible lumbar arch, arched foot and long straight legs, which monkeys lack, provide the convenience of moving in an upright position for a person.

But between man and ape there are distinctive features that only zoologists can tell about. For example, experts note that some of the signs that make a person closer to marine mammals than to primates are a thick fatty layer and skin rigidly attached to a muscular frame.
There are significant differences in the vocal capabilities of humans and monkeys. Thus, our larynx occupies a much lower position in relation to the mouth than that of any other primate species. The common “tube” formed as a result of this provides a person with exceptional opportunities for a speech resonator.

Brain

The volume of the human brain is almost three times that of the brain of a monkey - 1600 and 600 cm3, which gives us an advantage in the development of mental abilities. In the brain of a monkey, there are no speech centers and zones of association that a person has. This led to the emergence of not only the first signal system (conditioned and unconditioned reflexes), but also the second one, which is responsible for speech forms of communication.
But more recently, British scientists discovered in the human brain a much more noticeable detail that the monkey brain lacks - this is the lateral frontal pole of the prefrontal cortex. It is he who is responsible for strategic planning, task differentiation and decision making.

Hearing

Human hearing is particularly sensitive to the perception of sound frequencies - in the range of approximately 20 to 20,000 Hz. But in some monkeys, the ability to distinguish frequencies significantly exceeds that of a human. For example, Philippine tarsiers can hear sounds up to 90,000 Hz.

True, the selective ability of human auditory neurons, which allow us to perceive the difference in sounds that differ by 3-6 Hz, is higher than that of monkeys. Moreover, people have a unique ability to relate sounds to each other.

However, monkeys can also perceive a series of repeated sounds of different pitches, but if this series is shifted up or down a few tones (change the key), then the melodic pattern will be unrecognizable for animals. It is not difficult for a person to guess the same sequence of sounds in different keys.

Childhood

Newborn babies are completely helpless and completely dependent on their parents, while baby monkeys can already hang and move from place to place. Unlike a monkey, a person needs a much longer time to grow up. So, for example, a female gorilla reaches puberty by the age of 8, given that her gestation period is almost the same as that of a woman.

In newborn children, unlike monkey cubs, instincts are much less developed - a person receives most of the life skills in the learning process. It is important to note that a person is formed in the process of direct communication with his own kind, while a monkey is born with an already established form of its existence.

Sexuality

By virtue of innate instincts, the male monkey is always able to recognize when the female is ovulating. Humans don't have this ability. But there is a more significant difference between humans and monkeys: this is the occurrence of menopause in humans. The only exception in the animal world is the black dolphin.
Man and monkey differ in the structure of the genital organs. So, not a single great ape has a hymen. On the other hand, the male genital organ of any primate contains gutter bone (cartilage), which is absent in humans. There is one more characteristic feature concerning sexual behavior. Face-to-face sexual intercourse, so popular with humans, is unnatural for monkeys.

Genetics

Geneticist Steve Jones once remarked that “50% of human DNA is similar to that of bananas, but this does not mean that we are half bananas, either from head to waist or from waist to toe.” The same can be said when comparing man with a monkey. The minimal difference in the genotype of humans and monkeys - about 2% - nevertheless forms a huge gap between the species.
The difference includes about 150 million unique nucleotides, which contain about 50 million individual mutation events. Such changes, according to scientists, cannot be achieved even on an evolutionary time scale of 250 thousand generations, which once again refutes the theory of human origin from higher primates.

There are significant differences between humans and monkeys in the set of chromosomes: if we have 46 of them, then gorillas and chimpanzees have 48. Moreover, there are genes in human chromosomes that are absent in chimpanzees, which reflects the difference between the human and animal immune systems. Another interesting genetic claim is that the human Y chromosome is as different from the similar chimpanzee chromosome as it is from the chicken Y chromosome.

There is also a difference in the size of the genes. When comparing human and chimpanzee DNA, it was found that the monkey genome is 12% larger than the human genome. And the difference in the expression of human and monkey genes in the cerebral cortex was expressed in 17.4%.
A genetic study by scientists from London has revealed a possible reason why monkeys are not able to speak. So they determined that the FOXP2 gene plays an important role in the formation of the speech apparatus in humans. Geneticists decided on a desperate experiment and introduced the FOXP2 gene to a chimpanzee, in the hope that the monkey would speak. But nothing of the kind happened - the zone responsible for the functions of speech in humans, in chimpanzees, regulates the vestibular apparatus. The ability to climb trees in the course of evolution for the monkey turned out to be much more important than the development of verbal communication skills.

Differences in the structure and behavior of humans and animals

Along with similarities, humans have certain differences from monkeys.

In monkeys, the spine is arched, while in humans it has four bends, giving it an S-shape. A person has a wider pelvis, an arched foot that softens the concussion of internal organs when walking, a wide chest, the ratio of the length of the limbs and the development of their individual parts, structural features of muscles and internal organs.

A number of structural features of a person are associated with his labor activity and the development of thinking. In humans, the thumb on the hand is opposed to other fingers, so that the hand can perform a variety of actions. The cerebral part of the skull in humans prevails over the facial one due to the large volume of the brain, reaching approximately 1200-1450 cm 3 (in monkeys - 600 cm 3), the chin is well developed on the lower jaw.

The big differences between monkeys and humans are due to the adaptation of the first to life on trees. This feature, in turn, leads to many others. The essential differences between man and animals lie in the fact that man has acquired qualitatively new features - the ability to walk upright, the release of hands and their use as labor organs for the manufacture of tools, articulate speech as a method of communication, consciousness, i.e. those properties that closely related to the development of human society. Man not only uses the surrounding nature, but subjugates, actively changes it according to his needs, he himself creates the necessary things.

Similarities between humans and great apes

The same expression of feelings of joy, anger, sadness.

Monkeys gently caress their cubs.

Monkeys take care of children, but also punish them for disobedience.

Monkeys have a well-developed memory.

Monkeys are able to use natural objects as the simplest tools.

Monkeys have concrete thinking.

Monkeys can walk on their hind limbs, leaning on their hands.

On the fingers of monkeys, like humans, nails, not claws.

Monkeys have 4 incisors and 8 molars - like humans.

Humans and monkeys have common diseases (influenza, AIDS, smallpox, cholera, typhoid fever).

In humans and great apes, the structure of all organ systems is similar.

Biochemical evidence for human-monkey affinity:

the degree of hybridization of human and chimpanzee DNA is 90-98%, human and gibbon - 76%, human and macaque - 66%;

Cytological evidence of the proximity of man and monkeys:

humans have 46 chromosomes, chimpanzees and monkeys have 48 each, and gibbons have 44;

in the chromosomes of the 5th pair of chimpanzee and human chromosomes there is an inverted pericentric region

All of the above facts indicate that man and great apes descended from a common ancestor and make it possible to determine the place of man in the system of the organic world.

The similarity between man and monkeys is evidence of their kinship, common origin, and the differences are the result of different directions in the evolution of monkeys and human ancestors, especially the influence of human labor (tool) activity. Labor is the leading factor in the process of turning a monkey into a man.

F. Engels drew attention to this feature of human evolution in his essay "The Role of Labor in the Process of the Transformation of Apes into Humans", which was written in 1876-1878. and published in 1896. He was the first to analyze the qualitative originality and significance of social factors in the historical development of man.

The decisive step for the transition from ape to man was taken in connection with the transition of our most ancient ancestors from walking on all fours and climbing to a straight gait. Man's articulate speech and social life developed in labor activity, with which, as Engels said, we enter the realm of history. If the psyche of animals is determined only by biological laws, then the human psyche is the result of social development and influence.

similarities	Features of difference	Output
1. Large body size. 4. Similar structure of the skull. 5. Well developed head 7. We get sick with the same "human diseases". 8. Pregnancy - 280 days.	2. The person has: a) long and powerful legs; b) arched foot; c) wide pelvis; d) S-shaped spine. varied movements.

6. HYPOTHESIS OF "CHIPANZOIDITY" OF THE HOMINID ANCESTOR. BOLKA'S FETALIZATION HYPOTHESIS. COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMANS AND APETS. QUALITATIVE DIFFERENCE OF THE HUMAN FROM OTHER REPRESENTATIVES OF THE ANIMAL WORLD.

The most common point of view is that evolution

the human line took no more than 10 million years, and the monkey ancestor

the hominid had similarities with chimpanzees, was essentially a "chimpanzee-

similar." This position is substantiated by biomolecular and ethological

cal data. On a family tree built on the basis of

molecular facts, man is in the same cluster with chimpan-

ze, while the gorilla occupies a separate independent branch.

As a "model ancestor" of the human and chimpanzoid

ny, some anthropologists consider the pygmy chimpanzee -

bonobos (Pan paniscus) - small pongida from the jungles of Equatorial

Africa, discovered by the American scientist G. Coolidge in 1933. However,

there is another view of the bonobo - as a specialized form,

acquired dwarf body size and a number of related signs in

conditions of isolation.

Against the "chimpanzoid hypothesis" there are some possibilities.

fights. Since there is a mismatch in the rates of gene, chromo-

somatic and morphological evolution, biomolecular similarity of human

century and the chimpanzee is not in itself a sufficient reason for

in order to attribute a common ancestor to a chimpanzoic morphotype, or

mode of locomotion.

A purely biological concept of human evolution was put forward in 1918 by the anatomist L. Bolk. It has been called the "fetalization hypothesis". According to L. Bolk, a person is, as it were, an "immature" monkey. Many features of an adult - a large brain of a relatively small face, the absence of hair on the body and its presence in the form of hair on the head, weak pigmentation in some races - correspond to those of the chimpanzee embryo. The phenomenon of deceleration of development (retardation) of the embryo is known in many animals. The loss from the life cycle in animals of the adult stage, when the larva reproduces, is called neoteny. Thus, a person, according to L. Bolk, is a sexually mature embryo of a monkey (for more details, see: Kharitonov V.M., 1998, pp. 119-121). This concept has been heavily criticized. Thus, for example, it is impossible to explain the large absolute dimensions of the human brain by slowing down development. It is now clear that the propositions of the fetalization hypothesis cannot be taken literally. However, the comparative material collected by L. Bolk cannot be rejected, and the ideas of evolution due to embryonic changes find their followers.

Comparison of anatomical features convincingly speaks in favor of the fact that the human body is nothing more than the body of an anthropoid ape, specially adapted for walking on two legs. Our arms and shoulders differ little from those of chimpanzees. However, unlike the great apes, our legs are longer than our arms, and our pelvis, spine, hips, legs, feet, and toes have undergone changes that allow us to stand and walk with our bodies upright (Large apes can stand on two feet, only bending your knees, and walking on your feet, staggering from side to side.)

The adaptation of the feet to the new function meant that we could no longer use our big toes like our thumbs. The thumbs of our hands are comparatively longer than those of the great apes, and can, by bending over the palm, touch their tips to the tips of other fingers, which provides the precision of grasping that we need in the manufacture and use of tools. Walking on two legs, a more developed intellect and a varied diet - all contributed to the emergence of differences in the skull, brain, jaws and teeth in humans and monkeys.

Compared to the size of the body, the brain and cranium of a person is much larger than that of a monkey; in addition, the human brain is more highly organized, and its relatively larger frontal, parietal and temporal lobes jointly carry out the functions of thinking, controlling social behavior and human speech. The jaws of modern omnivorous humans are much shorter and weaker than those of the great apes, which eat a mostly vegetarian diet. Monkeys have shock-absorbing supraorbital ridges and bony cranial ridges to which powerful jaw muscles are attached. Humans lack the thick neck muscles that, in adult monkeys, support the protruding muzzle. The rows of our teeth are arranged in the form of a parabola, differing in this from the dentitions of great apes arranged in the form of a Latin letter U; in addition, the fangs of monkeys are much larger, and the crowns of molars are much higher than ours. But on the other hand, human molars are covered with a thicker layer of enamel, which makes them more wear-resistant and allows you to chew harder food. Differences in the structure of the tongue and throat between humans and chimpanzees allow us to make more diverse sounds, although facial features can take on different expressions in both humans and chimpanzees.

similarities	Features of difference	Output
1. Large body size. 2. Lack of tail and cheek pouches. 3. Well developed mimic muscles. 4. Similar structure of the skull. 5. Well developed head the brain, especially the frontal lobes, a large number of convolutions in the cerebral cortex. 6. Similar in Rh factor and blood types (ABO). 7. We get sick with the same "human diseases". 8. Pregnancy - 280 days. 9. More than 95% similarity of genes. 10. High level of development of higher nervous activity. 11. Similarity of stages of embryogenesis	1. Only a person is characterized by a true upright posture. 2. The person has: a) long and powerful legs; b) arched foot; c) wide pelvis; d) S-shaped spine. 3. Flexible hand and human movable fingers provide precise and varied movements. 4. In humans, the brain is complex, the average volume is 1350 cm 3 (in a gorilla - 400 cm 3). 5. A person is capable of articulate speech	Man is a biosocial creature occupying a high stage of evolutionary development, possessing consciousness, speech, abstract thinking and capable of social work.

The qualitative difference between man and other representatives of the animal world.

One of the main differences between man and animal lies in his relationship with nature. If an animal is an element of living nature and builds its relationship with it from the standpoint of adaptation to the conditions of the surrounding world, then a person does not simply adapt to the natural environment, but seeks to subjugate it to a certain extent, creating tools for this. With the creation of tools, the way of life of a person changes. The ability to create tools for the transformation of the surrounding nature testifies to the ability to work consciously. Labor is a specific type of activity inherent only to man, which consists in the implementation of influences on nature in order to ensure the conditions for its existence.

The main feature of labor is that labor activity, as a rule, is carried out only jointly with other people. This is true even for the simplest labor operations or activities of an individual nature, since in the process of their implementation a person enters into certain relationships with the people around him. For example, the work of a writer can be characterized as individual. However, in order to become a writer, a person had to learn to read and write, receive the necessary education, i.e. his labor activity became possible only as a result of involvement in the system of relations with other people. Thus, any work, even seemingly purely individual at first glance, requires cooperation with other people.

Consequently, labor contributed to the formation of certain human communities that were fundamentally different from animal communities. These differences were that, firstly, the unification of primitive people was caused by the desire not just to survive, which is typical to a certain extent for herd animals, but to survive by transforming the natural conditions of existence, i.e. through teamwork.

Secondly, the most important condition for the existence of human communities and the successful performance of labor operations is the level of development of communication between members of the community. The higher the level of development of communication between members of the community, the higher not only the organization, but also the level of development of the human psyche. Thus, the highest level of human communication - speech - has led to a fundamentally different level of regulation of mental states and behavior - regulation with the help of the word. A person who is able to communicate using words does not need to make physical contact with the objects around him to form his behavior or idea of ​​the real world. To do this, it is enough for him to have information that he acquires in the process of communicating with other people.

It should be noted that it is the features of human communities, which consist in the need for collective labor, that determined the emergence and development of speech. In turn, speech predetermined the possibility of the existence of consciousness, since a person's thought always has a verbal (verbal) form. For example, a person who, due to a certain set of circumstances, got into childhood with animals and grew up among them, cannot speak, and the level of his thinking, although higher than that of animals, does not at all correspond to the level of thinking of a modern person.

Thirdly, for the normal existence and development of human communities, the laws of the animal world, based on the principles of natural selection, are unsuitable. The collective nature of labor, the development of communication not only led to the development of thinking, but also led to the formation of specific laws of the existence and development of the human community. These laws are known to us as the principles of morality and morality. At the same time, it should be emphasized that such a logical sequence is only a hypothesis stated from rationalistic positions. Today, there are other points of view on the problem of the emergence of human consciousness, including those stated from irrational positions. This is not surprising, since there is no consensus on many issues of psychology. We give preference to the rationalistic point of view, not only because such views were held by the classics of Russian psychology (A.N. Leontiev, B.N. Teplov, etc.). There are a number of facts that make it possible to establish patterns that determined the possibility of the emergence of consciousness in humans.

First of all, attention should be paid to the fact that the emergence of human consciousness V, the emergence of speech and the ability to work were prepared by the evolution of man as a biological species. The upright posture freed the forelimbs from the function of walking and contributed to the development of their specialization associated with grasping objects, holding them and manipulating them, which in general contributed to the creation of an opportunity for a person to work. Simultaneously with this, the development of the sense organs took place. In humans, vision has become the dominant source of information about the world around us.

We have the right to believe that the development of the sense organs could not occur in isolation from the development of the nervous system as a whole, since with the advent of man as a biological species, significant changes are noted in the structure of the nervous system, and above all the brain. Thus, the volume of the human brain exceeds the volume of the brain of its closest predecessor - the great ape - more than twice. If in a great ape the average brain volume is 600 cm 3, then in humans it is 1400 cm 3. The surface area of ​​the cerebral hemispheres increases even more in proportion, since the number of convolutions of the cerebral cortex and their depth in humans is much greater.

However, with the advent of man, there is not only a physical increase in the volume of the brain and the area of ​​the cortex. There are significant structural and functional changes in the brain. For example, in humans, in comparison with the great ape, the area of ​​projection fields associated with elementary sensory and motor functions has decreased in percentage terms, and the percentage of integrative fields associated with higher mental functions has increased. Such a sharp growth of the cerebral cortex, its structural evolution is primarily due to the fact that a number of elementary functions, which in animals are entirely carried out by the lower parts of the brain, in humans already require the participation of the cortex. There is a further corticalization of the control of behavior, a greater subordination of elementary processes to the cortex in comparison with what is observed in animals. It should also be noted that the results of the evolution of motor organs affected the nature of structural changes in the human brain. Each muscle group is closely associated with certain motor fields of the cerebral cortex. In humans, the motor fields associated with a particular muscle group have a different area, the size of which directly depends on the degree of development of a particular muscle group. When analyzing the ratios of the sizes of the areas of the motor fields, attention is drawn to how large the area of ​​the motor field associated with the hands is in relation to other fields. Consequently, the human hands have the greatest development among the organs of movement and are most associated with the activity of the cerebral cortex. It must be emphasized that this phenomenon occurs only in humans.

Thus, the most complex structure that the human brain has and which distinguishes it from the brain of animals is most likely associated with the development of human labor activity. Such a conclusion is classical from the point of view of materialistic philosophy. However, we will not focus our attention on theoretical disputes, but only note that the emergence of consciousness in a person as the highest known form of development of the psyche became possible due to the complication of the structure of the brain. In addition, we must agree that the level of development of brain structures and the ability to perform complex labor operations are closely related. Therefore, it can be argued that the emergence of consciousness in humans is due to both biological and social factors. The development of wildlife has led to the emergence of a person with specific features of the structure of the body and a more developed nervous system compared to other animals, which generally determined the ability of a person to work. This, in turn, led to the emergence of communities, the development of language and consciousness, i.e. the logical chain of regularities mentioned above. Thus, labor was the condition that made it possible to realize the mental potentials of the biological species Homo Sapiens.

It must be emphasized that with the advent of consciousness, man immediately stood out from the animal world, but the first people, in terms of their level of mental development, differed significantly from modern people. Thousands of years passed before man reached the level of modern development. Moreover, the main factor in the progressive development of consciousness was labor. So, with the acquisition of practical experience, with the evolution of social relations, there was a complication of labor activity. A person gradually moved from the simplest labor operations to more complex activities, which entailed the progressive development of the brain and consciousness. This progressive development testifies to the social nature of consciousness, which is clearly manifested in the process of development of the child's psyche.

7. Australopithecus: GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY OF DISTRIBUTION. MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE MASSIVE AND GRACIL AUSTRALOPITECUS. RECONSTRUCTION OF THE WAY OF LIFE ACCORDING TO THE DATA OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY. MAIN REPRESENTATIVES OF THIS TAXON.

Autralopithecines are considered the oldest hominids. The earliest finds date back to 6-7 million years ago in Toros-Menalla (Republic of Chad). The latest dating of 900 thousand years ago is the findings of massive australopithecines in Svartkranes (South America). For the first time, the skeletal remains of Australopithecus were discovered in 1924 in southern Africa, which is reflected in the name (from the Latin "Australis" - southern and the Greek "Pitekos" - monkey). This was followed by numerous finds in East Africa (Olduvai Gorge, Afar Desert, etc.). Until recently, the most ancient (age 3.5 million years) skeleton of a human erect ancestor was considered to be a female skeleton, which is known to the whole world as “Lucy” (found in Afar in the 1970s).

The territory of Australopithecus settlement is also very large: all of Africa south of the Sahara and, possibly, some territories to the north. As far as is known, the Australopithecus never left Africa. Inside Africa, Australopithecus locations are concentrated in two main areas: East Africa (Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia) and South Africa. Separate finds have also been made in North Africa; perhaps their small number is due more to the burial conditions or the poor knowledge of the region, and not to the actual distribution of Australopithecus. It is clear that in such a wide time and geographical framework, natural conditions have changed more than once, which led to the appearance of new species and genera.

Gracile Australopithecus.

In Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia, fossils have been discovered in many locations gracile australopithecines.

Gracil Australopithecus were upright creatures about 1-1.5 meters tall. Their gait was somewhat different from that of a human. Apparently, Australopithecus walked with shorter steps, and the hip joint did not fully extend when walking. Together with a fairly modern structure of the legs and pelvis, the arms of Australopithecus were somewhat elongated, and the fingers were adapted for climbing trees, but these signs can only be a legacy from ancient ancestors. Like the early members of the group, the gracile australopithecines had a highly ape-like skull that matched the almost modern rest of the skeleton. The Australopithecus brain was similar to that of a monkey in both size and shape. However, the ratio of brain mass to body mass in these primates was intermediate between a small simian and a very large human.

During the day, Australopithecus roamed the savannah or forests, along the banks of rivers and lakes, and in the evening climbed trees, as modern chimpanzees do. Australopithecus lived in small herds or families and were able to travel quite long distances. They ate mainly plant foods, and they usually did not make tools, although not far from the bones. one of the types scientists found stone tools and antelope bones crushed by them.

The best-known finds are from the Hadar area in the Afar Desert, including a skeleton nicknamed Lucy. Also, in Tanzania, fossilized traces of erect walking creatures were found in the same layers from which the remains of Afar australopithecines are known. In addition to the Afar australopithecines, other species probably lived in East and North Africa in the time interval of 3-3.5 million years ago. In Kenya, at Lomekwi, a skull and other fossils were found, described as Kenyanthropus platyops(Kenianthropus flat-faced). In the Republic of Chad, in Koro Toro, a single jaw fragment was found, described as Australopithecus bahrelghazali(Australopithecine Bahr el Ghazal). At the other end of the continent, in South Africa, in a number of localities - Taung, Sterkfontein and Makapansgat - numerous fossils have been discovered, known as Australopithecus africanus(Australopithecine Africanus). To this species belonged the first find of Australopithecus - the skull of a cub known as "Baby from Taung". African Australopithecus lived from 3.5 to 2.4 million years ago. The latest gracile Australopithecus - dated to about 2.5 million years ago - was discovered in Ethiopia in Bowri and named Australopithecus garhi(Australopithecine gari).

Massive Australopithecus.

The oldest stone tools are known from several sites in Ethiopia - Gona, Shungura, Hadar - and are dated 2.5-2.7 million years ago. At the same time, new species of hominids arose, possessing a large brain and already attributable to the genus Homo. However, there was another group of late australopithecines that deviated from the line leading to man - massive australopithecines.

Paranthropes were large - up to 70 kg in weight - specialized herbivorous creatures that lived along the banks of rivers and lakes in dense thickets. Their way of life was somewhat reminiscent of the way of life of modern gorillas. However, they retained their bipedal gait and may even have been able to make tools. In layers with paranthropes, stone tools and bone fragments were found, with which hominids tore up termite mounds. Also, the hand of these primates was adapted for the manufacture and use of tools.

The paranthropes relied on size and herbivory. This led them to ecological specialization and extinction. However, in the same layers with paranthropes, the remains of the first representatives of hominins, the so-called "early Homo"- more advanced hominids with large brains.

The oldest massive australopithecines are known from Kenya and Ethiopia - Lokalei and Omo. They have dates about 2.5 million years ago and are named Paranthropus aethiopicus(Paranthropus Ethiopian). Later massive Australopithecus from East Africa - Olduvai, Koobi-Fora - dating from 2.5 to 1 million years ago are described as Paranthropus boisei(Paranthropus of Boyce). In South Africa - Swartkrans, Kromdraai, Drimolen Cave - are known Paranthropus robustus(Paranthropes are massive). The massive Paranthropus was the second species of Australopithecus to be discovered. When examining the skull of Paranthropus, huge jaws and large bone ridges are striking, which served to attach the chewing muscles. The jaw apparatus reached its maximum development in East African Paranthropus. The first open skull of this species, due to the size of the teeth, even received the nickname "The Nutcracker".

The difference between you and the monkeys.

Dmitry Kurovsky

Physical differences

genetic differences

Differences in behavior

mental differences

Human spirituality is unique

In modern society, through almost all information channels, we are forced to believe that humans are biologically close to monkeys. And that science has discovered such a similarity between human DNA and chimpanzees that leaves no doubt about their origin from a common ancestor. Is it true? Are humans really just evolved apes?

Remarkably, human DNA allows us to perform complex calculations, write poetry, build cathedrals, walk on the moon, while chimpanzees catch and eat each other's fleas. As information accumulates, the gap between humans and apes becomes more and more obvious. To date, science has discovered many differences between us and monkeys, but most people, unfortunately, do not know this. Some of these differences are listed below. They cannot be explained by minor internal changes, rare mutations, or survival of the fittest.

Physical differences

Tails - where did they go? There is no intermediate state "between the tails".

Many primates and most mammals make their own vitamin C. 1We, as the "strongest", obviously lost this ability "somewhere on the way to survival."

Our newborns are different from baby animals. Their sense organs are quite developed, the weight of the brain and body is much larger than that of monkeys, but with all this, our babies helpless and more dependent on their parents. They can neither stand nor run, while newborn monkeys can hang and move from place to place. Gorilla babies can stand on their feet 20 weeks after birth, but human babies only 43 weeks later. Is this progress? During the first year of life, a person develops functions that are present in young animals even before birth.1

People need a long childhood. Chimpanzees and gorillas mature at 11 or 12 years of age. This fact is contrary to evolution, since, logically, the survival of the fittest should require a shorter period of childhood.1

We have different skeletal structures. The human being as a whole is structured quite differently. Our torso is shorter, while in monkeys it is longer than the lower limbs.

Monkeys have long arms and short legs. We, on the contrary, have short arms and long legs. The arms of the higher apes are so long that, having taken a slightly bent position, they can reach the ground with them. Cartoonists take advantage of this characteristic and paint on long arms for people they don't like.

A person has a special S-shaped spine with distinct cervical and lumbar curves, the monkeys do not have a curved spine. Man has the largest total number of vertebrae.

Humans have 12 pairs of ribs, while chimpanzees have 13 pairs.

In humans, the rib cage is deeper and barrel-shaped., while the chimpanzee has a cone shape. In addition, a cross section of chimpanzee ribs shows that they are rounder than human ribs.

Monkey feet look like their hands- their big toe is mobile, directed to the side and opposed to the rest of the fingers, resembling the thumb. In humans, the big toe points forward and is not opposed to the rest, otherwise we could kick off the shoes and easily lift objects with the thumb or even start writing with the foot.

Human feet are unique– they promote bipedal walking and cannot compare with the appearance and function of the monkey foot.2 The toes on the human foot are relatively straight, not curved like those of monkeys. Not a single monkey has such a repulsive foot as a person, which means that not a single monkey is able to walk like people - with long steps and leave human footprints.

Monkeys have no arch in their feet! When walking, our foot thanks to the arch cushions all loads, shocks and impacts. No animal is known to have a springy arch of the foot. If a person descended from ancient monkeys, then his arch should have appeared in the foot “from scratch”. However, the springy vault is not just a small detail, but a complex mechanism. Without him, our life would be very different. Just imagine a world without bipedalism, sports, games and long walks! When moving on the ground, the monkeys rest on the outer edge of the foot, maintaining balance with the help of the forelimbs.

The structure of the human kidney is unique. 4

A person does not have a continuous hairline: if man shares a common ancestor with monkeys, where did the thick hair from the monkey body go? Our body is relatively hairless (flaw) and completely devoid of tactile hair. No other intermediate, partially hairy species are known.1

Humans have a thick layer of fat that apes don't have. This makes our skin look more like a dolphin's skin. 1 The fat layer allows us to stay in cool water for a long time without the risk of hypothermia.

Human skin is rigidly attached to the muscular frame, which is characteristic only of marine mammals.

Humans are the only land creatures capable of consciously holding their breath. This seemingly “insignificant detail” is very important, since an indispensable condition for the ability to speak is a high degree of conscious control of breathing, which in us is not similar to any other animal living on land.1

Desperate to find a terrestrial "missing link" and based on these unique human properties, some evolutionists have seriously suggested that we evolved from aquatic animals!

Only humans have the whites of their eyes. All monkeys have completely dark eyes. The ability to determine the eyes of other people's intentions and emotions is an exclusively human privilege. Coincidence or design? From the eyes of a monkey it is absolutely impossible to understand not only her feelings, but even the direction of her gaze.

The contour of the human eye is elongated in an unusual way in the horizontal direction, which increases the field of view.

Humans have a distinct chin, but monkeys do not. In humans, the jaw is reinforced by a chin protrusion - a special roller that runs along the lower edge of the jawbone, and is unknown in any of the monkeys.

Most animals, including chimpanzees, have large mouths. We have a small mouth with which we can better articulate.

Wide and twisted lips- a characteristic feature of a person; higher apes have very thin lips.

Unlike the higher apes, a person has a protruding nose with a well-developed elongated tip.

Only humans can grow long hair on their heads.

Among primates, only humans have blue eyes and curly hair. 1

We have a unique speech apparatus providing the finest articulation and articulate speech.

In humans, the larynx occupies a much lower position. in relation to the mouth than in monkeys. Due to this, our pharynx and mouth form a common “tube”, which plays an important role as a speech resonator. This ensures the best resonance - a necessary condition for the pronunciation of vowel sounds. Interestingly, the drooping larynx is a disadvantage: unlike other primates, humans cannot eat or drink and breathe at the same time without choking.

Man has a special language- thicker, taller and more mobile than monkeys. And we have multiple muscle attachments to the hyoid bone.

Humans have fewer interconnected jaw muscles than apes,- we do not have bone structures for their attachment (very important for the ability to speak).

Man is the only primate whose face is not covered with hair.

The human skull does not have bony ridges and continuous brow ridges. 4

human skull has a vertical face with protruding nasal bones, while the monkey skull has a sloping face with flat nasal bones.5

Different structure of teeth. We have a closed diastema, that is, a gap that includes protruding fangs in primates; different shapes, slopes and chewing surfaces of different teeth. In humans, the jaw is smaller and the dental arch is parabolic, the anterior section has a rounded shape. Monkeys have a U-shaped dental arch. Canine teeth are shorter in humans, while all great apes have protruding fangs.

Why are our faces so different from the animal "images" of monkeys? Where do we get a complex speech apparatus from? How plausible is the statement that all these unique characteristics involved in communication were “gifted” to a person by random mutations and selection?

Only humans have the whites of their eyes, thanks to which our eyes can convey almost all emotions. The ability to determine the eyes of other people's intentions and emotions is an exclusively human privilege. From the eyes of a monkey it is absolutely impossible to understand not only her feelings, but even the direction of her gaze. The contour of the human eye is unusually elongated in the horizontal direction, which increases the field of view.

Humans can exercise fine motor control that apes don't have, and perform delicate physical operations thanks to unique connection of nerves with muscles. In a recent study, Alan Walker, an evolutionary biologist at Pennsylvania National University, found "differences in the muscle structure of chimpanzees and humans."6 In an interview, Walker stated, "It is clear that our muscle fibers do not contract all at once. It turns out that in the human body there is an inhibition of the brain function, which keeps the muscular system from damage. Unlike humans, great apes do not have this inhibition (or do, but not to the same degree).”6

Humans have more motor neurons controlling muscle movements than in chimpanzees. However, in order to be truly effective, all of these motor neurons must be properly connected, according to the overall plan. This plan, like many others, belongs only to people.6

The human hand is absolutely unique. It can rightly be called a design marvel.7 Articulation in the human hand is much more complex and skillful than that of primates, as a result of which only a person can work with different tools. A person can gesticulate with a brush, as well as clench it into a fist. The human wrist is more mobile than the stiff wrist of a chimpanzee.

Our thumb well developed, strongly opposed to the rest and very mobile. Monkeys have hooked hands with a short and weak thumb. No element of culture would exist without our unique thumb! Coincidence or design?

The human hand is capable of two unique contractions that monkeys cannot do., - precise (eg, holding a baseball) and power (grabbing the bar with your hand). 7 The chimpanzee cannot produce a strong grip, while the application of force is the main component of the power grip. Precise grasping is used for movements that require precision and care. Accuracy is achieved thanks to the thumb and many types of finger squeezes. Interestingly, these two types of grasping are a unique property of the human hand and in nature no one else is found. Why do we have this "exception"?

In humans, the fingers are straight, shorter and more mobile than in chimpanzees.

Human and monkey foot.

These unique attributes of man confirm the story of Genesis—they were given to him as part of his ability to “subdue the earth and have dominion over animals,” create and change the world (Genesis 1:28). They reflect the gulf that separates us from the apes.

Only man has true upright posture.. Sometimes, when the monkeys are carrying food, they can walk or run on two limbs. However, the distance they cover in this way is rather limited. In addition, the way monkeys walk on two limbs is completely different from walking on two legs. The particular human approach requires the intricate integration of the many skeletal and muscular features of our hips, legs, and feet.5

Humans are able to support their body weight on their feet while walking because our hips converge to our knees to form with the tibia. unique bearing angle at 9 degrees (in other words, we have "turned knees"). Conversely, chimpanzees and gorillas have widely spaced, straight legs with a bearing angle almost equal to zero. These animals distribute their body weight on their feet while walking, rocking the body from side to side and moving with the familiar “monkey gait”.8

The special positioning of our ankle joint allows the tibia to make direct movements relative to the foot while walking.

The human femur has a special edge for muscle attachment (Linea aspera), which is absent in great apes.5

In humans, the position of the pelvis relative to the longitudinal axis of the body is unique, in addition, the very structure of the pelvis differs significantly from the pelvis of monkeys - all this is necessary for upright walking. We have a relative width of the iliac pelvis (width/length x 100) that is much larger (125.5) than that of chimpanzees (66.0). When viewed from above, these fenders curve forward like the knuckle handles on an airplane. Unlike humans, the wings of the iliac bones in monkeys protrude to the sides, like the handlebars of a bicycle. With such a pelvis, the monkey is simply not able to walk like a person! Based on this feature alone, it can be argued that a person is fundamentally different from a monkey.

Humans have unique knees- they can be fixed at full extension, making the patella stable, and are located closer to the middle sagittal plane, being under the center of gravity of our body.

The human femur is longer than the chimpanzee femur and usually has a raised rough line that holds the rough line of the femur under the handle.8

The person has true inguinal ligament, which the great apes do not have.4

The human head is placed on top of the spine, while in great apes it is "suspended" forward, and not up. We have a special shock-absorbing connection between the head and the spine.

The man has a large vaulted skull, taller and more rounded. Monkey skull box simplified.5

The human brain is far more complex than the monkey brain.. It is about 2.5 times larger than the brain of higher monkeys in terms of volume and 3–4 times in mass. A person has a highly developed cerebral cortex, in which the most important centers of the psyche and speech are located. Unlike apes, only humans have a complete sylvian sulcus, consisting of anterior horizontal, anterior ascending, and posterior branches.

The gestation period in humans is the longest among primates. For some, this may be another fact that contradicts the theory of evolution.

Human hearing is different from that of chimpanzees and most other apes. Human hearing is characterized by a relatively high sensitivity of perception - from two to four kilohertz - it is in this frequency range that we hear important sound information in spoken speech. Chimpanzee ears are relatively insensitive to such frequencies. Their auditory system is most strongly tuned to sounds that peak at either one kilohertz or eight kilohertz.

A recent study has discovered even finer tuning and the selective ability of individual cells located in the human auditory cortex: "A single human auditory neuron has shown an amazing ability to distinguish subtle differences in frequencies, up to one tenth of an octave - and this is compared to a cat's sensitivity of about one octave and half a full octave in a monkey.”9 This level of recognition is not needed for simple speech discrimination, but is necessary for to listen to music and appreciate all its beauty.

Why are there such inexplicable differences as being born face down rather than up, the ability to walk on two legs, and speech? Why do monkeys never need a haircut? Why do people need such a sensitive ear, except to enjoy music?

The human hand is absolutely unique. It can rightly be called a miracle of design. It is capable of two compressions that monkeys cannot do - precise and power. A chimpanzee cannot produce a strong contraction. Precise grasping is used for movements that require precision and care. Interestingly, these two types of grasping are a unique property of the human hand and are not found in nature anywhere else. Why do we have this "exception"?

Differences in behavior

Humans are the only creatures able to cry, expressing strong emotional experiences. 1 Only man sheds tears in sorrow.

We are the only ones who are able to laugh, reacting to a joke or expressing emotions. 1 The "smile" of a chimpanzee is purely ritual, functional and has nothing to do with feelings. By showing their teeth, they make it clear to their relatives that there is no aggression in their actions. The "laugh" of the monkeys sounds completely different and more like the sounds of a breathless dog, or an asthma attack in humans. Even the physical aspect of laughter is different: humans laugh only on the exhale, while monkeys laugh on both the exhale and inhale.

In monkeys, adult males never provide food for others. 4 in man is the main duty of men.

We are the only creatures that blush due to relatively minor events. one

Man builds houses and makes fire. The lower apes do not take care of housing at all, the higher apes build only temporary nests. 4

None of the primates can swim like humans. We are the only ones whose heart rate automatically slows down when immersed in water and moves in it, and does not increase, as in land animals.

The social life of people is expressed in the formation of the state is a purely human phenomenon. The main (but not the only) difference between human society and the relations of domination and subordination formed by primates lies in people's awareness of their semantic meaning.

Monkeys have a rather small territory, and the man is big. 4

Our newborn children have weak instincts; most of their skills they acquire in the learning process. Man, unlike monkeys, acquires its own special form of existence "in freedom", in an open relationship with living beings and, above all, with people, while an animal is born with an already established form of its existence.

"Relative Hearing" is a purely human ability.. 23 Humans have a unique ability to recognize pitch based on the relationship between sounds. This ability is called "relative pitch". Some animals, such as birds, can easily recognize a series of repeated sounds, but if the notes are shifted slightly up or down (i.e., change the key), the melody becomes completely unrecognizable to birds. Only humans can guess a melody whose key has been changed even a semitone up or down. The relative hearing of a person is another confirmation of the uniqueness of a person.

people wear clothes. Man is the only creature that looks out of place without clothes. All animals look funny in clothes!

For an overview of the many abilities we often take for granted, read on. "Talents: Unappreciated Gifts".

The conclusions of systematics about the proximity of man to these monkeys are based on solid comparative morphological and comparative physiological material.

The latter serves as the basis for the theory of the pithecoid (monkey) origin of man, in view of which we will briefly dwell on it. A comparative morpho-physiological analysis of the characteristics of humans and anthropomorphic monkeys makes it possible, in particular, to outline the formulation of the question of the phylogenetic relationships between them. Indeed, it seems important to find out which of the three great apes is closer to humans.

The table compares, first of all, the main dimensional features of all four forms.

The table shows that for most of the listed dimensional features, chimpanzees and gorillas are closest to humans. At the same time, it is striking that, in terms of brain weight, chimpanzees are closest to humans.

hairline. The body of anthropomorphic monkeys is covered with coarse hair. The back and shoulders are more heavily haired (especially in the orang). The chest is slightly covered. The face, part of the forehead, the soles of the feet, the palms of the hands are devoid of hair. The back of the hand is slightly hairy. The undercoat is missing. Consequently, the hairline reveals the features of rudimentation, however, far from being as pronounced as in humans. In chimpanzees, sometimes the armpits are covered with hair (resemblance to humans). Orangs have a strong development of beards and mustaches (resemblance to humans). As in humans, the hair of the shoulder and forearm of all anthropomorphs is directed towards the elbow. In chimpanzees and orangs, as in humans, baldness is observed, especially in the hairless chimpanzee - A. calvus.

Dimensional signs	Orang	Chimpanzee	Gorilla	Human	The greatest proximity to a person in this trait
Body weight - kg	70-100	40-50	100-200	40-84	Chimpanzee
Height - m	Up to 1.5	Up to 1.5	Up to 2	1,40-1,80	Gorilla
Arm length to body length (100%)	223,6%	180,1%	188,5%	152,7%	Chimpanzee
Leg length to body length (100%)	111,2%	113,2%	113,0%	158,5%	Gorilla and chimpanzee
Wrist length as a percentage of body length (100%)	63,4%	57,5%	55,0%	36,8%	Gorilla
Foot length as a percentage of torso length (100%)	62,87%	52-62%	58-59%	46-60%	Gorilla
brain weight to body weight	1:200	1:90	1:220	1:45	Chimpanzee

Color of the skin. Chimpanzees have light skin, except for the face. The pigment is formed in the epidermis of the skin, as in humans.

Skull and jaw apparatus. The skull of an adult human differs sharply from that of apes in a number of ways. However, even here there are some similarities: the table compares some elements of the characteristics of the skulls of humans and great apes.

Selected elements of the characteristic, as well as the data in the table, show that African anthropomorphic monkeys are closer to humans than the orangutan. If we calculate the volume of the brain box of a chimpanzee in relation to its body weight, then this monkey will be the closest to man. The same conclusion follows from the comparison of the 5th, 6th, 10th and 12th indicators given in the table.

vertebral column. In humans, it forms an S-shaped profile line, that is, it functions like a spring that guarantees the brain from concussion. Cervical vertebrae with weak spinous processes. Anthropomorphic monkeys do not have an S-curve, the spinous processes are long, especially in the gorilla. They are most similar to human ones in chimpanzees, elongating evenly from the first to the last cervical vertebra, like in humans.

Rib cage. Its general shape in humans and anthropomorphic is barrel-shaped, somewhat compressed in the dorsal-abdominal direction. This configuration of the chest is characteristic only of man and anthropomorphic. In terms of the number of ribs, the orang is the closest to a person, having, like the last one, 12 pairs of ribs. However, the same number is observed in the gorilla, although it happens, like in the chimpanzee, 13 pairs. The human embryo normally has the same number of ribs that is sometimes found in an adult. Thus, anthropomorphic are very close in this feature to humans, especially orangutans. However, the chimpanzee and gorilla are closer to humans in the shape of the sternum, which consists of a small number of elements, more numerous in the orang.

limb skeleton. For anthropomorphic, as for all monkeys, a certain similarity in the functions of the fore and hind limbs is characteristic, since both arms and legs are involved in climbing a tree, and the forelimbs, which have a much greater lifting force than those of Homo, are of leading importance. Both limbs of the anthropomorphic are multifunctional, and the functions of the hand are wider and more diverse than the functions of the leg. In a person, the hand is completely freed from the function of movement, for which other functions associated with his labor activity have been extraordinarily enriched. The human leg, having become the only support of the body, on the contrary, experienced a process of narrowing of functions and, in particular, an almost complete loss of the grasping function. These relationships caused the development of significant differences in the structure of the skeleton of the limbs of anthropomorphic and human, especially the legs. The human leg - thigh and lower leg - significantly exceeds the same anthropomorphic elements in length.

The powerful development of muscles in the human leg has led to a number of features in the structure of its bones. The hip is characterized by a strong development of the rough line (linea aspera), a long neck and an obtuse angle at which it deviates from the body of the bone itself. There are a number of distinctive features in the human foot. Whereas in anthropomorphs, as a rule, the big toe is deflected at an angle to the others, in humans it is located approximately parallel to the rest of the fingers. This increases the supporting power of the leg, i.e., is a sign associated with upright walking. This is also confirmed by the fact that in the mountain gorilla, which often assumes an upright position, the big toe of the hind foot is similar in position to the human. Another feature of a person is the domed, concave lower surface of the sole, springy when walking. This feature is absent in the flat feet of monkeys. In the latter, the hand and foot are very long. The hand and foot of the gorilla, in general, are closer to the human, which is associated with a more developed chthonobiontism of this monkey.

Taz. The human pelvis is wider than it is long. The structure of the sacrum fused with it includes 5 sacral vertebrae, which increases the supporting force of the pelvis. The gorilla's pelvis is most similar to that of a human, followed by chimpanzees and orangutans. And in this feature, the closeness of the gorilla to man is a consequence of chthonousness.

muscles. A person has strongly developed leg muscles (upright posture), namely: the gluteal, quadriceps, gastrocnemius, soleus, third peroneal, square muscle of the foot. Like humans, anthropomorphic ear muscles are rudimentary, especially in orangs, while chimpanzees are able to move their ears. However, in general, the muscular system of African anthropomorphs is closer to the human than to that of the orangutan.

The brain of man and chimpanzee. (12). Both brains are shown equal in size for ease of comparison (actually, the chimpanzee brain (2) is much smaller). Brain areas: 1 - frontal, 2 - frontal granular, 3 - motor, 4 - parietal, 5 - striated, 6 - temporal, 7 - preoccipital, 8 - insular, 9 - postcentral. (From Nesturh)

Brain, sense organs. The volume of the cranium and the weight of the brain have already been indicated. Orangs and gorillas are farthest from humans in terms of brain weight, and chimpanzees are closest. The human brain is strikingly superior in volume and weight to the anthropomorphic brain. Yet. more important is the fact that it is richer in convolutions, although it is similar in this respect to the brain of anthropomorphs. However, the functional characteristics of the brain associated with its subtle (cytological) architectonics are of decisive importance. The figure shows that this latter is very similar in man and chimpanzee. However, the anthropomorphic ones do not have developed motor and sensory "speech centers", of which the first is responsible for the motor work of the human articulatory apparatus, and the second is for the semantic perception of the words heard. The cytological architectonics of the human brain is much more complex and more developed, especially within the frontal lobe, which makes up 47% of the lateral surface of the brain in humans, 33% in chimpanzees, 32% in gorillas, and even less in orangs.

sense organs human and anthropomorphic in many respects are similar. In all these forms, some reduction of the olfactory organs is observed. Human hearing is close in its perceptive features to the hearing of a gorilla, a chimpanzee has a greater ability to perceive high tones. The similarity of the auricle in African anthropomorphic and human is very great. Remarkably, the pinna gives variations that are remarkably similar to those of chimpanzees and other apes. Both man and anthropomorphic are characterized by great visual acuity, and, moreover, both three-dimensional (stereometric) and color.

Ontogenesis. Anthropomorphic embryogenesis is unusually similar to human embryogenesis. The early stages of development are generally hardly distinguishable in all monkeys. Differentiation according to species (and generic) characters begins at later stages. The figure shows that the heads of human embryos, chimpanzees and gorillas on the eve of birth, as well as the skulls of anthropomorphic newborns in humans, have many similarities - the roundness of the cranial vault, large, forward-directed rounded orbits, the dominance of the cranium over the jaw apparatus. There are also many similarities in the soft parts of the face. In chimpanzee and gorilla embryos, the eyeball protrudes noticeably from the orbit, due to the initial predominance of eyeball growth over orbital growth. In the human embryo, this discrepancy also takes place, but to a lesser extent. On the eyelids of human embryos and these monkeys, characteristic restrictive grooves are visible, which are weaker in humans. The ear of the gorilla fetus has a loose lobe, as in many people, etc. The general similarity of the embryos mentioned is therefore very great. Gorilla and chimpanzee embryos show distinct "whiskers" and "beards". In the human embryo, they are less developed, but Darwin pointed out ("The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection") that in the human embryo in the fifth month, the embryonic down around the mouth is noticeably elongated, so that in this sign; there is a clear resemblance.

However, during postembryonic development, signs of similarity give way to increasing signs of differences, i.e., ontogenetic divergence occurs. In the skull, it is expressed in the progressive development in anthropomorphic monkeys of the dentition, jaws, chewing muscles and sagittal crest (in the gorilla and orang) and the lag, compared with humans, in the development of the cranium.

General conclusion. The above comparative review leads to the following general conclusions:

but. Man and anthropomorphic monkeys have many similarities in the morpho-physiological organization and in the patterns of embryogenesis.

b. African forms (gorilla, chimpanzee) are closer to humans than the orangutan. The chimpanzee is closest to man, but in a number of signs - a gorilla, in a few - an orangutan.

in. If we take into account the phenomena of the ontogenetic divergence noted above and the fact that signs of similarity with humans are scattered within all three genera of anthropoid apes, then the final conclusion from the review will be the following: humans and anthropomorphic apes originate from a common root, and later historically developed in divergent directions.

Thus, we see that the theory of the pithecoid (monkey) origin of man corresponds to comparative morphological and comparative physiological data.