History of the Arab Empire. The World History

Historical prerequisites for the emergence

The initial core of the caliphate was the Muslim community created by the prophet Muhammad at the beginning of the 7th century in Hijaz (Western Arabia) - the ummah. As a result of the Muslim conquests, a huge state was created, which included the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, Iran, most of the Transcaucasus (in particular the Armenian Highlands, the Caspian territories, the Colchis lowland, as well as areas of Tbilisi), Central Asia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, most of the Iberian Peninsula, Sindh.

From the founding of the caliphate () to the Abbasid dynasty ()

This period includes the era of the first 4 caliphs, "walking the right path" (ar-râshidin) - Abu Bakr (632-634), Umar (634-644), Usman (644-656) and Ali (656-661) and the dominance of the Umayyads (661-750).

Arab conquests

In size, their empire, which was formed in less than a hundred years, surpassed that of Rome, and this turned out to be all the more amazing because at the beginning, after the death of Muhammad, one could fear that even the small successes of Islam, which he achieved in Arabia, would collapse. Muhammad, dying, left no heir, and after his death (632) a dispute arose between the Meccans and Medinans over the question of his successor. During the discussions, Abu Bakr was chosen as caliph. Meanwhile, with the news of the death of Muhammad, almost all of Arabia, except for Mecca, Medina and Taif, immediately departed from Islam. With the help of believing Medinese and Meccans, Abu Bakr was able to bring vast but disunited Arabia back to Islam; Most of all, the so-called Sayfullah "the sword of Allah" - an experienced commander Khalid ibn al-Walid, who only 9 years ago defeated the prophet at Mount Departure - helped him in this; Khalid defeated the 40,000th army of the followers of the false prophet Musailima in the so-called. "fence of death" at Akrab (633). Immediately after the pacification of the uprising of the Arabs, Abu Bakr, continuing the policy of Muhammad, led them to war against the Byzantine and Iranian possessions.

The limits of the caliphate narrowed somewhat: the surviving Umayyad Abd ar-Rahman I laid the first foundation in Spain () for an independent Emirate of Cordoba, which since 929 has been officially titled "caliphate" (929-). 30 years later, Idris, the great-grandson of Caliph Ali and therefore equally hostile to both the Abbasids and the Umayyads, founded the Alid dynasty of the Idrisids (-) in Morocco, whose capital was the city of Tudga; the rest north coast Africa (Tunisia, etc.) was actually lost to the Abbasid Caliphate when the governor of Aghlab, appointed by Harun al-Rashid, was the founder of the Aghlabid (-) dynasty in Kairouan. The Abbasids did not consider it necessary to resume their foreign aggressive policy against Christian or other countries, and although military clashes arose from time to time both on the eastern and northern borders (like Mamun’s two unsuccessful campaigns against Constantinople), however, in general, the caliphate lived peacefully.

Such a feature of the first Abbasids as their despotic, heartless and, moreover, often insidious cruelty is noted. Sometimes, as with the founder of the dynasty, she was an open object of Caliph's pride (the nickname "Bloodshed" was chosen by Abu-l-Abbas himself). Some of the caliphs, at least the cunning al-Mansur, who liked to dress himself before the people in hypocritical clothes of piety and justice, preferred, where possible, to act deceitfully and executed dangerous people surreptitiously, first lulling their caution with oaths and favors. With al-Mahdi and with Harun ar-Rashid, cruelty was obscured by their generosity, however, the perfidious and ferocious overthrow of the vizier family of the Barmakids, extremely useful for the state, but imposing a certain bridle on the ruler, is for Harun one of the most disgusting acts of Eastern despotism. It should be added that under the Abbasids, a system of torture was introduced into the legal proceedings. Even the religiously tolerant philosopher Mamun and his two successors are not too free from the reproach of tyranny and hardness of heart towards people unpleasant to them. Kremer finds (Culturgesch. d. Or., II, 61; compare Müller: Historical Isl., II, 170) that the very first Abbasids show signs of hereditary Caesarian madness, which intensifies even more in descendants.

In justification, one can only say that in order to suppress the chaotic anarchy in which the countries of Islam were located during the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, worried by the adherents of the overthrown Umayyads, bypassed Alids, predatory Kharijites and various Persian sectarians of radical , terrorist measures were, perhaps, a simple necessity. Apparently, Abu-l-Abbas understood the meaning of his nickname "Bloodshed". Thanks to the formidable centralization that the heartless man but the brilliant politician al-Mansur managed to introduce, the subjects were able to enjoy internal peace, and the state finances were set up in a brilliant way. Even the scientific and philosophical movement in the caliphate dates back to the same cruel and insidious Mansur (Masudi: “Golden Meadows”), who, despite his notorious stinginess, treated science with encouragement (meaning, first of all, practical, medical goals) . But, on the other hand, it remains undoubted that the flourishing of the caliphate would hardly have been possible if Saffah, Mansur and their successors ruled the state directly, and not through the talented vizier family of the Barmakids of the Persians. Until this family was overthrown () by the unreasonable Harun ar-Rashid, burdened by her guardianship, some of its members were the first ministers or close advisers to the caliph in Baghdad (Khalid, Yahya, Jafar), others were on important government positions in the provinces (like Fadl), and all together managed, on the one hand, to maintain for 50 years the necessary balance between Persians and Arabs, which gave the caliphate its political fortress, and on the other hand, to restore the ancient Sasanian life, with its social structure, with its culture, with its mental movement.

"Golden Age" of Arab culture

This culture is usually called Arabic, because the organ of mental life for all the peoples of the Caliphate has become the Arabic language, - therefore they say: "Arabic art", "Arab science”, etc.; but in essence, these were mostly the remnants of the Sassanian and Old Persian culture in general (which, as is known, also adopted a lot from India, Assyria, Babylon and, indirectly, from Greece). In the Western Asian and Egyptian parts of the Caliphate, we observe the development of the remnants of Byzantine culture, just as in North Africa, Sicily and Spain - Roman and Roman-Spanish culture - and uniformity in them is imperceptible, if we exclude the link that connects them - Arabic. It cannot be said that the foreign culture inherited by the Caliphate rose qualitatively under the Arabs: the Iranian-Muslim architectural buildings are lower than the old Parsi, likewise Muslim products made of silk and wool, household utensils and jewelry, despite their charm, are inferior to antique products.

But on the other hand, in the Muslim, Abbasid period, in a vast, united and orderly state, with carefully arranged communication routes, the demand for Iranian-made items increased, and the number of consumers increased. Peaceful relations with neighbors made it possible to develop remarkable foreign barter trade: with China through Turkestan and - by sea - through the Indian archipelago, with the Volga Bulgars and Russia through the kingdom of the Khazars, with the Spanish emirate, with all of Southern Europe (with the possible exception of Byzantium), with the eastern shores of Africa (from where, in turn, ivory and blacks were exported), etc. The main port of the caliphate was Basra. The merchant and the industrialist are the main characters of Arabian tales; various high-ranking officials, military leaders, scientists, etc. were not ashamed to add to their titles the nickname Attar (“moskateur”), Heyat (“tailor”), Javhariy (“jeweler”), and so on. However, the nature of the Muslim-Iranian industry is not so much the satisfaction of practical needs as luxury. The main items of production are silk fabrics (muslin, satin, moire, brocade), weapons (sabers, daggers, chain mail), embroideries on canvas and leather, braided work, carpets, shawls, chased, engraved, carved ivory and metals, mosaic works, faience and glassware; less often purely practical items - paper, cloth and camel wool.

The well-being of the agricultural class (for reasons, however, taxable, not democratic) was raised by the restoration of irrigation canals and dams, which were launched under the last Sassanids. But even according to the consciousness of the Arab writers themselves, the caliphs failed to bring the people's ability to pay to such a height as was achieved by the tax system of Khosrov I Anushirvan, although the caliphs ordered the Sasanian cadastral books to be translated into Arabic on purpose for this purpose.

The Persian spirit also takes possession of Arabic poetry, which now, instead of Bedouin songs, gives the refined works of the Basrian Abu Nuwas (“Arabic Heine”) and other court poets Harun al-Rashid. Apparently, not without Persian influence (Brockelman: “Gesch. d. arab. Litt.”, I, 134) a correct historiography arises, and after the “Life of the Apostle” compiled by Ibn Ishak for Mansur, a number of secular historians also appear. From Persian, Ibn al-Mukaffa (circa 750) translates the Sassanid "Book of Kings", the Pahlavi adaptation of Indian parables about "Kalila and Dimna" and various Greek-Syro-Persian philosophical works, which Basra, Kufa first of all get acquainted with, then and Baghdad. The same task is performed by people of a language closer to the Arabs, the former Persian subjects of the Aramean Christians of Jondishapur, Harran, etc. Moreover, Mansur also takes care of the translation into Arabic of Greek medical, and at the same time mathematical and philosophical works (Masudi: "Golden Meadows") . Harun gives the manuscripts brought from the Asia Minor campaigns for translation to the Jondishapur doctor John ibn Masaveih (who even engaged in vivisection and was then a life doctor for Mamun and his two successors), and Mamun arranged, already specifically for abstract philosophical purposes, a special translation board in Baghdad and attracted philosophers (Kindi). Under the influence of Greek-Syro-Persian philosophy, the commentary work on the interpretation of the Koran turns into scientific Arabic philology (Basrian Khalil, Basrian Persian Sibaveyhi; Mamun's teacher is the Kufi Kisviy) and the creation of Arabic grammar, the philological collection of works of pre-Islamic and Umayyad folk literature (Muallakat, Hamasa, Khozeilit poems, etc.).

The age of the first Abbasids is also known as a period of the highest tension of the religious thought of Islam, as a period of strong sectarian movement: the Persians, who were now converting to Islam en masse, took Muslim theology almost completely into their own hands and aroused a lively dogmatic struggle, among which heretical sects, outlined even under The Umayyads, received their development, and the orthodox theology-jurisprudence was defined in the form of 4 schools, or interpretations: under Mansur - the more progressive Abu Hanifa in Baghdad and the conservative Malik in Medina, under Harun - the relatively progressive ash-Shafi'i, under Mamun - ibn Hanbal. The attitude of the government towards these orthodoxies has not always been the same. Under Mansur, a supporter of the Mu'tazilites, Malik was flogged to mutilation. Then, during the next 4 reigns, orthodoxy prevailed, but when Mamun and his two successors raised (since 827) Mutazilism to the level of state religion, the followers of orthodox interpretations were subjected to official persecution for "anthropomorphism", "polytheism", etc., and under al-Mu'tasim was flogged and tortured by the holy imam ibn-Hanbal (). Of course, the caliphs could fearlessly patronize the Mu'tazilite sect, because its rationalistic doctrine of the free will of man and the creation of the Koran and its inclination towards philosophy could not seem politically dangerous. To sects of a political nature, such as, for example, the Kharijites, Mazdakites, extreme Shiites, who sometimes raised very dangerous uprisings (the false prophet Moqanna in Khorasan under al-Mahdi, 779, the brave Babek in Azerbaijan under Mamun and al-Mutasim, etc. ), the attitude of the caliphs was repressive and merciless even at the time of the supreme power of the caliphate.

Fall of the Caliphate

Loss of political power of the caliphs

Witnesses of the gradual disintegration of X. were the caliphs: the already mentioned Mutawakkil (847-861), the Arab Nero, highly praised by the orthodox; his son Muntasir (861-862), who ascended the throne, having killed his father with the help of the Turkic guards, Mustain (862-866), Al-Mutazz (866-869), Mukhtadi I (869-870), Mutamid (870-892 ), Mutadid (892-902), Muktafi I (902-908), Muktadir (908-932), Al-Qahir (932-934), Al-Radi (934-940), Muttaqi (940-944), Mustakfi (944-946). In their person, the caliph turned from the ruler of a vast empire into the prince of a small Baghdad region, at enmity and reconciliation with his sometimes stronger, sometimes weaker neighbors. Inside the state, in their capital Baghdad, the caliphs became dependent on the masterful praetorian Turkic guard, which Mutasim (833) saw fit to form. Under the Abbasids, the national identity of the Persians revived (Goldzier: "Muh. Stud.", I, 101-208). Harun's reckless extermination of the Barmakids, who knew how to rally the Persian element with the Arab, led to discord between the two peoples. Under Mamun, the strong political separatism of Persia was expressed in the founding of the Tahirid dynasty in Khorasan (821-873), which proved to be the first symptom of the coming secession of Iran. After the Tahirids (821-873), independent dynasties were formed: the Saffarids (867-903; see), the Samanids (875-999; see), the Ghaznavids (962-1186; see), and Persia escaped the caliphs. In the West, Egypt, together with Syria, seceded under the rule of the Tulunids (868-905); True, after the fall of the Tulunids, Syria and Egypt were again under the control of the Abbasid governors for 30 years; but in 935 Ikhshid founded his dynasty (935-969), and since then not a single area west of the Euphrates (Mecca and Medina also belonged to the Ikhshids) was subject to the secular power of the Baghdad caliphs, although their rights as spiritual rulers were recognized everywhere (except , of course, Spain and Morocco); a coin was minted with their name and a public prayer (khutba) was read.

Persecution of free thought

Feeling their weakness, the caliphs (the first - Al-Mutawakkil, 847) decided that they should gain new support for themselves - in the orthodox clergy, and for this - renounce Mutazilite free-thinking. Thus, since the time of Mutawakkil, along with the progressive weakening of the power of the caliphs, there has been an increase in orthodoxy, the persecution of heresies, free thinking and heterodoxy (Christians, Jews, etc.), religious persecution of philosophy, natural and even exact sciences. A new powerful school of theologians, founded by Abul-Hasan al-Ash'ari (874-936), who left Mu'taziliteism, conducts scientific polemics with philosophy and secular science and wins public opinion. However, in fact, to kill the mental movement of the caliphs, with their more and more falling political power, they were not able to, and the most glorious Arab philosophers (Basri encyclopedists, Farabi, Ibn Sina) and other scientists lived under the auspices of vassal sovereigns just in that the era ( - c.), when officially in Baghdad, in Islamic dogma and in the opinion of the masses, philosophy and non-scholastic sciences were recognized as impiety; and literature, towards the end of the said epoch, produced the greatest free-thinking Arab poet Ma'arri (973-1057); at the same time, Sufism, which had taken root very well in Islam, with many of its Persian representatives passed into complete freethinking.

Cairo Caliphate

The last caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty

The Abbasid caliph, that is, in essence, a petty Baghdad prince with a title, was a toy in the hands of his Turkic commanders and Mesopotamian emirs: under Al-Radi (934-941), a special position of mayordom (“emir-al-umarâ”) was established. Meanwhile, in the neighborhood, in western Persia, the Shia dynasty of the Buyids, which had separated from the Samanids in 930, advanced (see). In 945, the Buyids captured Baghdad and owned it for more than a hundred years, with the title of sultans, and at that time there were nominal caliphs: Mustakfi (944-946), Al-Muti (946-974), Al-Tai (974-991 ), Al-Qadir (991-1031) and Al-Qaim (1031-1075). Although from political calculations, to counterbalance the Fatimids, the Shiite sultans-Buids called themselves vassals, "emirs al-umar" of the Sunni Caliphate of Baghdad, but, in essence, they treated the caliphs as prisoners, with complete disrespect and contempt, patronized philosophers and freethinkers sectarians, and in Baghdad itself Shiism made progress.

Seljuk invasion

A ray of hope for getting rid of the oppressors flashed to the caliphs in the person of the new conqueror, the Turkic sultan Mahmud Ghaznevi (997-1030), who, having created his own huge sultanate instead of the Samanid state he had overthrown, showed himself to be an ardent Sunni and introduced orthodoxy everywhere; however, he took away Media and some other possessions only from the small Buyids, and avoided clashes with the main Buyids. In cultural terms, the campaigns of Mahmud turned out to be very disastrous for the countries he conquered, and in 1036 a terrible misfortune struck the entire Muslim Asia: the Seljuk Turks began their devastating conquests and dealt the first mortal blow to the Asian Muslim civilization, already shaken by the Ghaznevid Turks . But the caliphs got better: in 1055, the leader of the Seljuks, Togrul-bek, entered Baghdad, freed the caliph from the power of the heretic Buyids, and instead of them he himself became a sultan; in 1058 he solemnly accepted an investiture from Al-Qa'im and surrounded him with outward signs of reverence. Al-Qaim (d. 1075), Mukhtadi II (1075-1094) and Al-Mustazhir (1094-1118) lived in material contentment and respect, as representatives of the Muslim church, and Al-Mustarshid (1118-1135) Seljukid Mas'ud granted Baghdad and most of Iraq for independent secular government, which remained with his successors: Ar-Rashid (1135-1136), Al-Muktafi (1136-1160), Al-Mustanjid (1160-1170) and Al-Mustadi (1170) -1180).

The end of X. Fatimid, so hated by the Abbasids, was put by the faithful Sunni Saladin (1169-1193). The Egyptian-Syrian Ayyubid dynasty (1169-1250) founded by him honored the name of the Baghdad caliph.

Mongol invasion

Taking advantage of the weakness of the disintegrated Seljuk dynasty, the energetic caliph An-Nasir (1180-1225) decided to expand the boundaries of his small Baghdad Kh. and dared to fight against the powerful Khorezmshah Muhammad ibn Tekesh, who advanced instead of the Seljuks. ibn Tekesh ordered a meeting of theologians to transfer X. from the clan of Abbas to the clan of Ali and sent troops to Baghdad (1217-1219), and An-Nasir sent an embassy to the Mongols of Genghis Khan, inviting them to invade Khorezm. Neither An-Nasir (d. 1225) nor Caliph Az-Zahir (1220-1226) saw the end of the catastrophe they had brought about, which destroyed the Islamic countries of Asia both culturally, materially and mentally. The last Caliphs of Baghdad were Al-Mustansir (1226-1242) and the completely insignificant and mediocre Al-Mustasim (1242-1258), who in 1258 surrendered the capital to the Mongols Hulagu and was executed 10 days later with most of the members of his dynasty. One of them fled to Egypt, and there the Mamluk sultan Baibars (-), in order to have spiritual support for his sultanate, elevated him to the rank of "caliph" under the name Mustansir (). The descendants of this Abbasid remained nominal caliphs under the sultans of Cairo until the power of the Mamluks was overthrown by the Ottoman conqueror Selim I (1517). In order to have all the official data of spiritual leadership over the entire Islamic world, Selim I forced the last of these caliphs and the last of the Abbasid family, Motawakkil III, to solemnly renounce his caliphic rights and title in favor of

On the territory of the Arabian Peninsula already in the II millennium BC. lived Arab tribes that were part of the Semitic group of peoples. In the V-VI centuries. AD Arab tribes dominated the Arabian Peninsula. Part of the population of this peninsula lived in cities, oases, engaged in crafts and trade.

The other part wandered in the deserts and steppes, engaged in cattle breeding. Trade caravan routes between Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Judea passed through the Arabian Peninsula. The intersection of these paths was the Meccan oasis near the Red Sea. This oasis was inhabited by the Arab tribe Qureish, whose tribal nobility, using geographical position Mecca, received income from the transit of goods through their territory.

In addition, Mecca became the religious center of Western Arabia. Here was located the ancient pre-Islamic temple of the Kaaba. According to legend, this temple was erected by the biblical patriarch Abraham (Ibrahim) with his son Ismail. This temple is associated with a sacred stone that fell to the ground, which has been worshiped since ancient times, and with the cult of the god of the Quraish Allah tribe (from Arabic ilah - master).

In the VI century. n, e. in Arabia, in connection with the movement of trade routes to Iran, the importance of trade falls. The population, which lost income from the caravan trade, was forced to look for sources of livelihood in agriculture. But suitable for Agriculture land was scarce. They had to be conquered.

For this, forces were needed and, consequently, the unification of fragmented tribes, moreover, worshiping different gods. The need to introduce monotheism and unite the Arab tribes on this basis was more and more clearly defined.

This idea was preached by adherents of the Hanif sect, one of whom was Mohammed (c. 570-632 or 633), who became the founder of a new religion for the Arabs - Islam. This religion is based on the tenets of Judaism and Christianity: belief in one God and his prophet, the Last Judgment, retribution after death, unconditional obedience to the will of God (Arabic Islam-obedience).

The Jewish and Christian roots of Islam are evidenced by the names of the prophets and other biblical characters common to these religions: the biblical Abraham (Islamic Ibrahim), Aaron (Harun), David (Daud), Isaac (Ishak), Solomon (Suleiman), Ilya (Ilyas), Jacob (Yakub), Christian Jesus (Isa), Mary (Maryam) and others. Islam has common customs and prohibitions with Judaism. Both religions prescribe the circumcision of boys, forbid portraying God and living beings, eating pork, drinking wine, etc.

At the first stage of development, new religious outlook Islam was not supported by most of the tribesmen of Muhammad, and first of all by the nobility, as they feared that the new religion would lead to the cessation of the cult of the Kaaba as a religious center, and thereby deprive them of their income. In 622, Muhammad and his followers had to flee persecution from Mecca to the city of Yathrib (Medina).

This year is considered the beginning of the Muslim chronology. The agricultural population of Yathrib (Medina), competing with merchants from Mecca, supported Muhammad. However, only in 630, by typing required number supporters, he got the opportunity to form military forces and capture Mecca, the local nobility of which was forced to submit to the new religion, the more they were satisfied that Muhammad proclaimed the Kaaba the shrine of all Muslims.

Much later (c. 650), after the death of Muhammad, his sermons and sayings were collected into a single book of the Koran (translated from Arabic means reading), which became sacred to Muslims. The book includes 114 suras (chapters), which set out the main tenets of Islam, prescriptions and prohibitions.

Later Islamic religious literature is called Sunnah. It contains legends about Muhammad. Muslims who recognized the Koran and the Sunnah became known as Sunnis, and those who recognized only one Koran became Shiites. The Shiites recognize only his relatives as legitimate caliphs (deputies, deputies) of Muhammad, spiritual and secular heads of Muslims.

The economic crisis in Western Arabia in the 7th century, caused by the displacement of trade routes, the lack of land suitable for agriculture, and high population growth, pushed the leaders of the Arab tribes to seek a way out of the crisis by seizing foreign lands. This is also reflected in the Koran, which says that Islam should be the religion of all peoples, but for this it is necessary to fight against the infidels, exterminate them and take away their property (Koran, 2:186-189; 4:76-78, 86).

Guided by this specific task and the ideology of Islam, Muhammad's successors, the caliphs, began a series of aggressive campaigns. They conquered Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia. Already in 638 they captured Jerusalem. Until the end of the 7th century under the rule of the Arabs were the countries of the Middle East, Persia, the Caucasus, Egypt and Tunisia. In the 8th century Central Asia, Afghanistan, Western India, North-West Africa were captured.

In 711, Arab troops under the leadership of Tarik sailed from Africa to the Iberian Peninsula (from the name of Tarik came the name Gibraltar - Mount Tarik). Having quickly conquered the Iberian lands, they rushed to Gaul. However, in 732, at the battle of Poitiers, they were defeated by the Frankish king Charles Martel.

By the middle of the IX century. Arabs captured Sicily, Sardinia, the southern regions of Italy, the island of Crete. At this, the Arab conquests stopped, but a long-term war was waged with the Byzantine Empire. Arabs besieged Constantinople twice.

The main Arab conquests were made under the caliphs Abu Bakr (632-634), Omar (634-644), Osman (644-656) and the caliphs from the Umayyad dynasty (661-750). Under the Umayyads, the capital of the Caliphate was moved to Syria in the city of Damascus.

The victories of the Arabs, the capture of vast areas by them were facilitated by the many years of mutually exhausting war between Byzantium and Persia, disunity and constant enmity between other states that were attacked by the Arabs. It should also be noted that the population of the countries occupied by the Arabs, suffering from the oppression of Byzantium and Persia, saw the Arabs as liberators, who reduced the tax burden primarily to those who converted to Islam.

The unification of many former disparate and warring states into a single state contributed to the development of economic and cultural communication between the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe. Crafts, trade developed, cities grew. Within the Arab Caliphate, a culture developed rapidly, incorporating the Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian heritage.

Through the Arabs, Europe became acquainted with cultural achievements Eastern peoples, primarily with achievements in the field of exact sciences - mathematics, astronomy, geography, etc.

In 750, the Umayyad dynasty in the eastern part of the Caliphate was overthrown. The caliphs were the Abbassids, descendants of the uncle of the Prophet Muhammad - Abbas. They moved the capital of the state to Baghdad.

In the western part of the Caliphate, in Spain, the Umayyads continued to rule, who did not recognize the Abbasids and founded the Caliphate of Cordoba with its capital in the city of Cordoba.

The division of the Arab caliphate into two parts was the beginning of the creation of smaller Arab states, the heads of which were the rulers of the provinces - emirs.

The Abbassid Caliphate waged constant wars with Byzantium. In 1258, after the Mongols defeated the Arab army and captured Baghdad, the Abbassid state ceased to exist.

The Spanish Umayyad Caliphate was also gradually shrinking. In the XI century. As a result of internecine struggle, the Caliphate of Cordoba broke up into a number of states. This was taken advantage of by the Christian states that arose in the northern part of Spain: the Leono-Castile, Aragonese, Portuguese kingdoms, which began a struggle with the Arabs for the liberation of the peninsula - the reconquista.

In 1085 they conquered the city of Toledo, in 1147 - Lisbon, in 1236 Cordoba fell. The last Arab state on the Iberian Peninsula - the Emirate of Granada - existed until 1492. With its fall, the history of the Arab Caliphate as a state ended.

The caliphate as an institution of the spiritual leadership of the Arabs by all Muslims continued to exist until 1517, when this function was transferred to the Turkish sultan, who captured Egypt, where the last caliphate, the spiritual head of all Muslims, lived.

The history of the Arab Caliphate, numbering only six centuries, was complex, ambiguous, and at the same time left a significant mark on the evolution of human society on the planet.

The difficult economic situation of the population of the Arabian Peninsula in the VI-VII centuries. in connection with the movement of trade routes to another zone necessitated the search for sources of livelihood. To solve this problem, the tribes living here embarked on the path of establishing a new religion - Islam, which was supposed to become not only the religion of all peoples, but also called for a fight against infidels (gentiles).

Guided by the ideology of Islam, the Caliphs pursued a broad policy of conquest, turning the Arab Caliphate into an empire. The unification of the former disparate tribes into a single state gave impetus to the economic and cultural communication peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe.

Being one of the youngest in the East, occupying the most offensive position among them, incorporating the Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian cultural heritage, the Arab (Islamic) civilization had a huge impact on spiritual life. Western Europe, representing a significant military threat throughout the Middle Ages.

Arab Caliphate

The Arab Caliphate is the most prosperous state in the Mediterranean, which existed there throughout the Middle Ages. The prophet Mohammed (Mohammed, Mohammed) and his successors took part in its creation.The Caliphate, being a medieval state, was formed as a result of the unification of several Arab tribes of the Arabian Peninsula, which is located between Northeast Africa and Iran.The emergence of statehood among the Arabs in the seventh century had such a characteristic feature as the religious coloring of the process, which was accompanied by a new world religion - Islam.

AT political movement for the unification of different tribes there was a slogan in which the rejection of many things was clearly expressed, including: paganism and polytheism, which objectively reflected the tendencies towards the emergence of a new system (“Hanif”). The search for preachers of a new god and new truths is associated with the name of Muhammad, they took place at that time under the influence of Christianity and Judaism. He personally proclaimed the need to establish the cult of Allah as the only god. public order tribal strife must be excluded. At the head of the Arabs should be a certain "messenger on earth from Allah" - that is, a prophet.

The calls of the Islamists to establish social injustice included the following points:
1. Limit usury.
2. Establish alms for the poor.
3. Free the slaves.
4. Requirement of honest relations in trade.

This caused great discontent among the representatives of the merchant nobility, as a result, Muhammad was forced to flee with his closest associates to the city of Yathrib (later it was called the "city of the Prophet" - Medina). There he soon enlisted the support of Bedouin nomads and other representatives of various social groups. The first mosque was erected in the city with the definition of the order in which the Muslim worship will be held.Muhammad was the leader: both military and spiritual, and also served as the chief judge.

Thirty years after his death, Islam was divided into three major currents, or rather sects, namely:
- Sunnis, who relied on the Sunnah in matters of justice and theology, where traditions about the actions and words of the prophet were collected;
- Shiites, who considered themselves to be the exact spokesmen and followers of the views that the prophet adhered to and who strictly followed the instructions of the Koran;
- Kharijites, for whom the first two caliphs, Omar and Abu Bakr, were a model of policy and practice.
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In the history of the Arab Caliphate, as a medieval one, there are two different periods:
- Damascus, when the Umayyad dynasty ruled;
- Baghdadi, when the Abbassid dynasty ruled.

Both corresponded to the main stages in the development of the medieval Arab state and society. As for the first stage in the development of the caliphate, it was a relatively centralized theocratic monarchy. In it there was a concentration of two powers: spiritual (Imamat) and secular (Emirate), they were considered unlimited and indivisible.
At the very beginning, the caliphs were chosen by the Muslim nobility, but later the power of the caliph was transferred by testamentary order written by him. The role of the chief advisor and senior official under the caliph belonged to the vizier.According to Muslim law, they were divided into two types. Some had wide power, others only limited powers, ie. they could only carry out the orders of the caliph. AT early period caliphate, as a rule, viziers of the second type were appointed.
The most important officials at the court included the following positions: the head of personal protection, the head of the police, and a special official, who, in turn, oversaw all other officials.
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central authority government controlled caliph were government special offices, they conducted office work, postal service and was the function of the secret police. The territory of the caliphate was divided into several provinces under the control of emirs - military governors, who were appointed by the caliph himself.
But the huge medieval empire called the Arab Caliphate was nevertheless abolished by the Mongols in the thirteenth century. Move the residence to Cairo, where the Caliph, even before the sixteenth century, retained spiritual leadership among the Sunnis, later it went to the Turkish sultans.

The Arab Caliphate was a theocratic Muslim state that arose as a result of the conquests of Muslims led by the Caliph in the 7th-9th centuries. Its initial core was created in the form of a community by the prophet Mohammed in Western Arabia in the Hijaz in the 7th century. The result of numerous Muslim conquests was the creation of a huge state, which included Iran, Iraq. It included most of the Transcaucasus and Central Asia. It also included the lands of Egypt, North Africa, Syria and Palestine, covered a significant part of the Iberian Peninsula and one of the four provinces of Pakistan - the land of the Sindhis. So vast was the state of the Arab Caliphate. The history of its creation is directly connected with the influence of the caliphs (heirs or governors).

During the time of the Arab Caliphate, science also flourished, it was the Golden Age of Islam. The date of its foundation is considered to be 632. Consider the era of the first 4 caliphs who followed the "right path". The Arab caliphate included the following rulers: Abu Bakr (his reign lasted from 632 to 634), Umar (634-644), Uthman, who ruled for the next 12 years (to 656), Ali (656 to 661) and further domination of the Umayyad dynasty, which lasted from 661 to 750.

Formed in less than 100 years, it exceeded the Roman one in size. After the death of Muhammad, there were prerequisites for its collapse and the collapse of the successes of Islam that were obtained thanks to him. After his death, almost all of Arabia moved away from this belief, with the exception of Mecca, Medina and Taif.

The Prophet did not leave behind an heir, and a dispute broke out over the successor between the Medinans and the Meccans. Caliph, after discussions, nominated Abu Bakr, who managed to return both Islam and divided Arabia to the Arab Caliphate. After pacifying the Arab uprising, Bakra continued the policy of Muhammad and waged war against the Iranian and Byzantine possessions. Towards the end of his life he ruled Arabia, Babylonia, Syria, Mesopotamia, western Iran, Bark, Egypt and Tripoli.

Usman conquered Cyprus, Eastern Iran, the Carthaginian region, expanding the Arab Caliphate. Due to the civil strife of the Arabs, which arose in connection with the assassination of Uthman, some border areas were eliminated.

Ali was killed during palace coup and the Umayyads came to power. Under them, in a state with elective government, a hereditary monarchy was entrenched.

The conquests of the first caliphs were successful because of the weakness of the opponents, since no one opposed the Arabs. Local population because of the hatred of the Greeks, she often called and helped the Arabs herself. The Greeks never allowed them to conquer and near Constantinople the Arabs suffered defeat.

In the conquered lands, where the Arab caliphate spread, history characterizes the style of government under Umar as a militant church. Under Uthman, the Arabs were allowed to own the conquered lands, which led to landowner activity. The religious character changed with the coming of the Umayyads. From the church-religious community, led by the spiritual head, there was a transformation into a secular-political power.

The next Abbasid dynasty is celebrated as despotic, bloody, and accompanied by heartless cruelty. The people witnessed hypocrisy, and deceit was manifested on the sly, in the form of reprisals against restless citizens. This dynasty was characterized by madness and a system of torture was introduced. Despite this, ruling circles were considered brilliant politicians, under whom finances were brilliantly conducted.

The culture of the Arab Caliphate and its development during this period were encouraged in every possible way, science and medicine developed. This was facilitated by a talented family of viziers who ruled until 803 and were overthrown by Harun. The members of the family maintained a balance between Arabs and Persians for 50 years, created a political fortress and restored Sasanian life.

Under the Abbasids, the culture of the Arab Caliphate was developed thanks to peaceful relations with neighbors and barter. Luxurious items, silk fabrics, weapons, jewelry on leather and canvas, carpets, carvings on bones were produced. In those years, mosaics, chasing, engraving, faience and glass products became widespread. Persia influenced the emergence of correct historiography and scientific Arabic philology. In those years, Arabic grammar was created, literature was collected.

1. List the main provisions of the Muslim faith.

The doctrine of Islam is based on "five pillars". All Muslims must believe in one God - Allah and in the prophetic mission of Muhammad; for them, a daily five-time prayer and a weekly, on Fridays, prayer in the mosque are obligatory; every Muslim must fast during the holy month of Ramadan and at least once in his life make a pilgrimage to Mecca - Hajj. These duties are supplemented by another duty - if necessary, to participate in the holy war for the faith - jihad.

2. What are the reasons for the successful conquests of the Arabs?

The reasons for the successful conquests of the Arabs were: the rivalry and mutual weakening of Byzantium and Iran, the religious militancy of the Arabs, the weakness of the barbarian states in North Africa.

3. How did the Muslim conquerors develop relations with people belonging to other religions?

Muslim conquerors did not First, the Arabs did not force Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians (adherents ancient religion Iran) convert to Islam; they were allowed to live according to the laws of their faith, paying a special poll tax. But the Muslims were extremely intolerant of the pagans. People who converted to Islam were exempt from taxes.

4. Why, despite the unrest and splits, the Islamic state managed to maintain unity for a long time?

Because the ruler - the caliph had not only secular, but also spiritual power over all Muslims, which ensured unity.

5. What are the reasons for the collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate?

The reasons for the collapse of the Arab Caliphate are the rebellions of the nobility, the inability to control a vast state, the emergence of independent rulers who did not obey the caliph, and the deprivation of the caliph of secular power.

6. Using the map, list the states of antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the territories of which became part of the Arab Caliphate.

The Sassanid state (Persia), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Khorasan, Khorezm, Kerman, Sistan, Tokharistan, Syria, Phenicia, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, the Kingdom of the Visigoths (Spain).

7. It is said that Islam is the only one of the world's religions that emerged "in the full light of history." How do you understand these words?

These words can be understood in such a way that Islam arose in an era that is well illuminated historical sources described by medieval historians. Therefore, historians are very well aware of the conditions in which a new religion arose.

8. The author of the work "Kabus-Name" (XI century) talks about wisdom and knowledge: do not mess around, especially with those ignoramuses who consider themselves sages and are satisfied with their ignorance. Associate only with those who are intelligent, for from intercourse with kind people get a good reputation. Do not be ungrateful for associating with good and good deeds and do not forget the one who needs you, do not push away, because through this pushing away, suffering and need will increase. Try to be good-natured and humane, move away from uncommendable morals and do not be wasteful, for the fruit of wastefulness is care, and the fruit of care is need, and the fruit of need is humiliation. Try to be praised by the intelligent, and see that the ignorant do not praise you, for the one who is praised by the mob is condemned by the nobles, as I heard ... They say that once Iflatun (as the Muslims called ancient Greek philosopher Plato. sat with the nobles of that city. A man came to bow to him, sat down and led different speeches. In the middle of speeches, he said: “O sage, today I saw such and such, and he spoke about you and glorified and glorified you: Iflatun, they say, is a very great sage, and there has never been and never will be like him. I wanted to convey his praises to you."

The sage Iflatun, hearing these words, bowed his head and sobbed, and was very sad. The man asked: “O sage, what offense have I done to you that you are so sad?” The sage Iflatun replied: “You did not offend me, O Khoja, but can there be a disaster greater than the fact that an ignoramus praises me and my deeds seem to him worthy of approval? I don’t know what stupidity I did, which pleased him and gave him pleasure, so he praised me, otherwise I would have repented of this act. My sadness is that I am still ignorant, for those who are praised by the ignorant are ignorant themselves.

What should be the circle of communication of a person, according to the author?

Why should such communication be beneficial?

Why was Plato upset?

What does the mention of his name in the story indicate?

You should communicate only with reasonable,

Such communication is beneficial, because from associating with good people gain a good reputation

Plato was upset that he was praised by an ignoramus, which means that Plato himself was compared with an ignoramus, because. “those who are praised by the ignorant are ignorant themselves”

This indicates that the Arabs not only knew ancient philosophy, but largely preserved it in the early Middle Ages.