Which people were called silver in Russian chronicles? How reliable are the old Russian chronicles?

The history of chronicles in Rus' goes back to the distant past. It is known that writing arose before the 10th century. The texts were written, as a rule, by representatives of the clergy. It is thanks to ancient writings that we know. But what was the name of the first Russian chronicle? Where did it all start? Why is it of great historical significance?

What was the name of the first Russian chronicle?

Everyone should know the answer to this question. The first Russian chronicle was called “The Tale of Bygone Years.” It was written in 1110-1118 in Kyiv. Linguistic scientist Shakhmatov revealed that she had predecessors. However, this is still the first Russian chronicle. It is called confirmed, reliable.

The story describes a chronicle of events that occurred over a certain period of time. It consisted of articles that described each past year.

Author

The monk described events from biblical times to 1117. The title of the first Russian chronicle is the first lines of the chronicle.

History of creation

The chronicle had copies made after Nestor, which were able to survive to this day. They weren't very different from each other. The original itself was lost. According to Shchakhmatov, the chronicle was rewritten just a few years after its appearance. Big changes were made to it.

In the 14th century, the monk Lawrence rewrote the work of Nestor, and it is this copy that is considered the most ancient that has survived to our time.

There are several versions of where Nestor got the information for his chronicle. Since the chronology goes back to ancient times, and articles with dates appeared only after 852, many historians believe that the monk described the old period thanks to the legends of people and written sources in the monastery.

She corresponded often. Even Nestor himself rewrote the chronicle, making some changes.

The interesting thing is that in those days the scripture was also a code of laws.

The Tale of Bygone Years described everything: from exact events to biblical legends.

The purpose of the creation was to write a chronicle, record events, restore chronology in order to understand where the Russian people come from and how Rus' was formed.

Nestor wrote that the Slavs appeared a long time ago from the son of Noah. Noah had three in total. They divided three territories among themselves. One of them, Japheth, received the northwestern part.

Then there are articles about the princes, the East Slavic tribes that descended from the Noriks. It is here that Rurik and his brothers are mentioned. It is said about Rurik that he became the ruler of Rus' by founding Novgorod. This explains why there are so many supporters of the Norman theory of the origin of princes from the Rurikovichs, although there is no factual evidence.

It tells about Yaroslav the Wise and many other people and their reign, about wars and other significant events that shaped the history of Rus' and made it what we know it now.

Meaning

"The Tale of Bygone Years" is of great importance today. This is one of the main historical sources on which historians conduct research. Thanks to her, the chronology of that period has been restored.

Since the chronicle has an open genre, ranging from stories of epics to descriptions of wars and weather, one can understand a lot about the mentality and ordinary life of the Russians who lived at that time.

Christianity played a special role in the chronicle. All events are described through the prism of religion. Even the deliverance from idols and the adoption of Christianity are described as a period when people got rid of temptations and ignorance. And the new religion is light for Rus'.

Chronicles are the focus of the history of Ancient Rus', its ideology, understanding of its place in world history - they are one of the most important monuments of writing, literature, history, and culture in general. Only the most literate, knowledgeable, wise people took on the task of compiling chronicles, i.e., weather reports of events, capable of not only setting out various affairs year after year, but also giving them an appropriate explanation, leaving for posterity a vision of the era as the chroniclers understood it.

The chronicle was a state matter, a princely matter. Therefore, the order to compile a chronicle was given not just to the most literate and intelligent person, but also to the one who would be able to implement ideas close to this or that princely branch, this or that princely house. Thus, the chronicler’s objectivity and honesty came into conflict with what we call “social order.” If the chronicler did not satisfy the tastes of his customer, they parted with him and transferred the compilation of the chronicle to another, more reliable, more obedient author. Alas, work for the needs of power arose already at the dawn of writing, and not only in Rus', but also in other countries.

Chronicles, according to the observations of domestic scientists, appeared in Rus' shortly after the introduction of Christianity. The first chronicle may have been compiled at the end of the 10th century. It was intended to reflect the history of Rus' from the time of the emergence of a new dynasty there, the Rurikovichs, and until the reign of Vladimir with his impressive victories, with the introduction of Christianity in Rus'. From this time on, the right and duty to keep chronicles were given to Church leaders. It was in churches and monasteries that the most literate, well-prepared and trained people were found - priests and monks. They had a rich book heritage, translated literature, Russian records of ancient tales, legends, epics, traditions; They also had the grand ducal archives at their disposal. The best thing for them was to carry out this responsible and important work: to create a written historical monument of the era in which they lived and worked, connecting it with past times, with deep historical origins.

Scientists believe that before chronicles appeared - large-scale historical works covering several centuries of Russian history, there were separate records, including church, oral stories, which initially served as the basis for the first generalizing works. These were stories about Kiev and the founding of Kiev, about the campaigns of Russian troops against Byzantium, about the journey of Princess Olga to Constantinople, about the wars of Svyatoslav, the legend about the murder of Boris and Gleb, as well as epics, lives of saints, sermons, traditions, songs, various kinds of legends .

Later, already during the existence of the chronicles, more and more new stories were added to them, tales about impressive events in Rus' like the famous feud of 1097 and the blinding of the young prince Vasilko or about the campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsians in 1111. The chronicle also included memoirs Vladimir Monomakh about life - his “Teachings to Children”.

The second chronicle was created under Yaroslav the Wise at the time when he united Rus' and founded the Church of Hagia Sophia. This chronicle absorbed the previous chronicle and other materials.

Already at the first stage of creating chronicles, it became obvious that they represent collective creativity, are a collection of previous chronicles, documents, and various types of oral and written historical evidence. The compiler of the next chronicle acted not only as the author of the corresponding newly written parts of the chronicle, but also as a compiler and editor. It was his ability to direct the idea of ​​the arch in the right direction that was highly valued by the Kyiv princes.

The next chronicle was created by the famous Hilarion, who wrote it, apparently under the name of the monk Nikon, in the 60-70s. XI century, after the death of Yaroslav the Wise. And then the vault appeared already during the time of Svyatopolk, in the 90s. XI century

The vault, which was taken up by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor and which entered our history under the name “The Tale of Bygone Years,” thus turned out to be at least the fifth in a row and was created in the first decade of the 12th century. at the court of Prince Svyatopolk. And each collection was enriched with more and more new materials, and each author contributed to it his talent, his knowledge, his erudition. Nestor's codex was in this sense the pinnacle of early Russian chronicle writing.

In the first lines of his chronicle, Nestor posed the question “Where did the Russian land come from, who was the first to reign in Kyiv, and where did the Russian land come from?” Thus, already in these first words of the chronicle it speaks of the large-scale goals that the author set for himself. And indeed, the chronicle did not become an ordinary chronicle, of which there were many in the world at that time - dry, dispassionately recording facts - but an excited story of the historian of that time, introducing into the narrative philosophical and religious generalizations, his own figurative system, temperament, and style. Nestor depicts the origin of Rus', as we have already said, against the backdrop of the development of the entire world history. Rus' is one of the European nations.

Using previous codes and documentary materials, including, for example, treaties between Rus' and Byzantium, the chronicler develops a wide panorama of historical events that cover both the internal history of Rus' - the formation of all-Russian statehood with its center in Kiev, and the international relations of Rus'. A whole gallery of historical figures passes through the pages of the Nestor Chronicle - princes, boyars, mayors, thousands, merchants, church leaders. He talks about military campaigns, the organization of monasteries, the foundation of new churches and the opening of schools, religious disputes and reforms of internal Russian life. Nestor constantly concerns the life of the people as a whole, their moods, expressions of dissatisfaction with the princely policies. On the pages of the chronicle we read about uprisings, murders of princes and boyars, and brutal social battles. The author describes all this thoughtfully and calmly, trying to be objective, as objective as a deeply religious person can be, guided in his assessments by the concepts of Christian virtue and sin. But, frankly speaking, his religious assessments are very close to universal human assessments. Nestor condemns murder, betrayal, deception, perjury uncompromisingly, but extols honesty, courage, loyalty, nobility, and other wonderful human qualities. The entire chronicle was imbued with a sense of the unity of Rus' and a patriotic mood. All the main events in it were assessed not only from the point of view of religious concepts, but also from the standpoint of these all-Russian state ideals. This motive sounded especially significant on the eve of the beginning of the political collapse of Rus'.

In 1116–1118 the chronicle was rewritten again. Vladimir Monomakh, who was then reigning in Kyiv, and his son Mstislav were dissatisfied with the way Nestor showed the role of Svyatopolk in Russian history, on whose order the “Tale of Bygone Years” was written in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. Monomakh took the chronicle from the Pechersk monks and transferred it to his ancestral Vydubitsky monastery. His abbot Sylvester became the author of the new code. Positive assessments of Svyatopolk were moderated, and all the deeds of Vladimir Monomakh were emphasized, but the main body of the Tale of Bygone Years remained unchanged. And in the future, Nestor’s work was an indispensable component both in the Kiev chronicles and in the chronicles of individual Russian principalities, being one of the connecting threads for the entire Russian culture.

Later, with the political collapse of Rus' and the rise of individual Russian centers, the chronicles began to fragment. In addition to Kyiv and Novgorod, their own chronicle collections appeared in Smolensk, Pskov, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Ryazan, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl-Russky. Each of them reflected the peculiarities of the history of its region, bringing its own princes to the fore. Thus, the Vladimir-Suzdal chronicles showed the history of the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod the Big Nest; Galician chronicle of the beginning of the 13th century. became, in essence, a biography of the famous warrior prince Daniil Galitsky; the Chernigov branch of the Rurikovichs was mainly narrated in the Chernigov Chronicle. And yet, even in the local chronicles, all-Russian cultural origins were clearly visible. The history of each land was compared with the entire Russian history; The Tale of Bygone Years was an indispensable part of many local chronicles. Some of them continued the tradition of Russian chronicle writing in the 11th century. So, shortly before the Mongol-Tatar invasion, at the turn of the 12th–13th centuries. In Kyiv, a new chronicle was created, which reflected the events that took place in Chernigov, Galich, Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', Ryazan and other Russian cities. It is clear that the author of the code had at his disposal the chronicles of various Russian principalities and used them. The chronicler also knew European history well. He mentioned, for example, Frederick Barbarossa's Third Crusade. In various Russian cities, including Kiev, in the Vydubitsky monastery, entire libraries of chronicle collections were created, which became sources for new historical works of the 12th–13th centuries.

The preservation of the all-Russian chronicle tradition was shown by the Vladimir-Suzdal chronicle code of the early 13th century, which covered the history of the country from the legendary Kiy to Vsevolod the Big Nest.

Every person is concerned about the history of his people, their origins. The history of Russia is one of the richest histories in the world. "Where did it start?" "Where are the origins?" - the most intriguing and vital questions for many of us. There are, of course, many answers, but the chronicle is a document of history that has survived to this day and has a complete narrative about our origins.

So, the topic that interested me was the chronicle.

In order to delve deeper into the study of this topic, I set a goal: to understand and be able to explain from the point of view of banal erudition what a chronicle is and its significance in the history of the Russian people.

To achieve the goal, I also formulated the following tasks:

• - Find and define the word “chronicle”;
• - Study and consider the historical significance of the chronicle;
• - Explain the term “subjectivity” of the chronicle;
• - Consider aspects of changes in the chronicle from the X-XV centuries;
• - Find the argumentation for the comparison “Chronicle vs. Bible (Orthodox)".

I also studied the literature of Moiseeva L.A., Buganov V.I., Danilevsky I.N., Eryomin I.P., Likhachev D.S. These works are a rich source of information about chronicles in Ancient Rus' and the main support of my work.

I also watched films about the formation of chronicles in Rus': the film “The Chronicle of Nestor” 2006, Air Force Moscow and the film “Believe the Chronicle. Princess Wolf" 1982 Lenfilm.

Chronicles are historical works of the 11th-17th centuries, in which the narrative was told year by year. The story about the events of each year in the chronicles usually began with the words: “in the summer” - hence the name - chronicle. The words “chronicle” and “chronicler” are equivalent, but the compiler of such a work could also be called a chronicler. Usually the chronicles set out Russian history from its beginning; sometimes the chronicles opened with biblical history and continued with ancient, Byzantine and Russian history. Chronicles played an important role in the ideological justification of princely power in Ancient Rus' and the promotion of the unity of Russian lands. The chronicles contain significant material about the origin of the Eastern Slavs, their state power, and the political relationships of the Eastern Slavs among themselves and with other peoples and countries.

A characteristic feature of the chronicle is the chroniclers' belief in the intervention of divine forces. New chronicles were usually compiled as collections of previous chronicles and various materials (historical stories, lives, messages, etc.) and contained records of events contemporary to the chronicler. Literary works were also used as sources in chronicles. Traditions, epics, treaties, legislative acts, documents from princely and church archives were also woven by the chronicler into the fabric of the narrative.

By rewriting the materials included in the chronicle, he sought to create a single narrative, subordinating it to a historical concept that corresponded to the interests of the political center where he wrote (the court of the prince, the office of the metropolitan, bishop, monastery, hut, etc.).

However, along with the official ideology, the chronicles reflected the views of their immediate compilers.

Chronicles testify to the high patriotic consciousness of the Russian people in the 11th-17th centuries.

Great importance was attached to the compilation of chronicles; they were consulted in political disputes and diplomatic negotiations.

The skill of historical storytelling has reached high perfection in them.

At least 1,500 lists of chronicles have survived. Many works of ancient Russian literature have been preserved in them: “The Instruction” of Vladimir Monomakh, “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev”, “Walking across the Three Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin, etc.

Ancient chronicles of the 11th-12th centuries. preserved only in later lists. The oldest list of chronicles with a date is the short chronicler of the Patra of Constantinople. Nikephoros, supplemented by Russian articles up to 1278, contained in the Novgorod helmsman 1280.

The most famous of the early chronicles that have survived to our time is “The Tale of Bygone Years.” Its creator is considered to be Nestor, a monk of the Pechersk Monastery in Kyiv, who wrote his work ca. 1113.

In Kyiv in the 12th century. Chronicle writing was carried out in the Kiev-Pechersk and Vydubitsky St. Michael's monasteries, as well as at the princely court. Galician-Volyn chronicle in the 12th century. concentrated at the courts of the Galician-Volyn princes and bishops. The South Russian chronicle was preserved in the Ipatiev Chronicle, which consists of the "Tale of Bygone Years", continued mainly by the Kyiv news (ending 1200), and the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle (ending 1289-92).

In the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the main centers of chronicle writing were Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov and Pereyaslavl. The monument to this chronicle is the Laurentian Chronicle, which begins with the “Tale of Bygone Years,” continued by the Vladimir-Suzdal news until 1305, as well as the Chronicler of Pereyaslavl-Suzdal (ed. 1851) and the Radziwill Chronicle, decorated with a large number of drawings. Chronicle writing received great development in Novgorod at the court of the archbishop, at monasteries and churches. The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused a temporary decline in chronicle writing. In the XIV-XV centuries. it develops again. The largest centers of chronicle writing were Novgorod, Pskov, Rostov, Tver, and Moscow. The chronicles reflected ch. events of local significance (the birth and death of princes, elections of mayors and thousand in Novgorod and Pskov, military campaigns, battles, etc.), church events (the installation and death of bishops, abbots of monasteries, construction of churches, etc.), crop failure and famine , epidemics, remarkable natural phenomena, etc. Events that go beyond local interests are poorly reflected in such chronicles. Novgorod chronicle of the XII-XV centuries. most fully represented by the Novgorod First Chronicle of the older and younger editions. The older, or earlier, version was preserved in the only Synodal parchment (charatein) list of the 13th-14th centuries; the younger version reached the lists of the 15th century.

In Pskov, chronicle writing was associated with mayors and the state chancellery at the Trinity Cathedral.

In Tver, chronicle writing developed at the court of Tver princes and bishops. The Tverskoy collection and the Rogozhsky chronicler give an idea of ​​it.

In Rostov, chronicle writing was carried out at the court of bishops, and the chronicles created in Rostov are reflected in a number of codes, including the Ermolin Chronicle of the 15th century. New phenomena in chronicles are noted in the 15th century, when the Russian state was taking shape with its center in Moscow.

The politics of Moscow leaders. princes was reflected in all-Russian chronicles. The Trinity Chronicle gives an idea of ​​the first Moscow all-Russian code. XV century (disappeared in a fire in 1812) and the Simeonovskaya Chronicle in the list of the 16th century. The Trinity Chronicle ends in 1409. To compile it, various sources were involved: Novgorod, Tver, Pskov, Smolensk, etc.

The origin and political orientation of this chronicle are emphasized by the predominance of Moscow news and a generally favorable assessment of the activities of Moscow princes and metropolitans.

The all-Russian chronicle compilation, compiled in Smolensk in the 15th century, was the so-called: Chronicle of Abraham; Another collection is the Suzdal Chronicle (15th century). A chronicle collection based on the rich Novgorod written language, the Sophia Vremennik, appeared in Novgorod. A large chronicle appeared in Moscow in the 15th century. XVI centuries The Resurrection Chronicle, which ends in 1541, is especially famous (the main part of the chronicle was compiled in 1534-37). It includes many official records. The same official records were included in the extensive Lvov Chronicle, which included the “Chronicle of the beginning of the kingdom of the Tsar and Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich,” until 1560. At the court of Ivan the Terrible in the 1540-60s, the Front Chronicle was created, i.e., chronicle, including drawings corresponding to the text. The first 3 volumes of the Litsevoy vault are devoted to world history (compiled on the basis of the "Chronograph" and other works), the next 7 volumes - Russian history from 1114 to 1567. The last volume of the Litsevoy vault, dedicated to the reign of Ivan the Terrible, was called the "Royal Book".

The text of the Facial Code is based on an earlier one - the Nikon Chronicle, which was a huge compilation of various chronicle news, stories, lives, etc.

In the 16th century Chronicle writing continued to develop not only in Moscow, but also in other cities. The most famous is the Vologda-Perm Chronicle. Chronicles were also kept in Novgorod and Pskov, in the Pechersky Monastery near Pskov.

In the 16th century New types of historical narration also appeared, already moving away from the chronicle form - “The Sedate Book of the Royal Genealogy” and “The History of the Kazan Kingdom”. In the 17th century There was a gradual withering away of the chronicle form of storytelling. At this time, local chronicles appeared, of which the most interesting are the Siberian Chronicles. The beginning of their compilation dates back to the 1st half. XVII century Of these, the Stroganov Chronicle and the Esipov Chronicle are the best known. In the 17th century Tobolsk son of boyar S.U. Remezov compiled "Siberian History". In the 17th century Chronicle news is included in the composition of power books and chronographs. The word “chronicle” continues to be used according to tradition even for such works that faintly resemble the Chronicles of earlier times. This is the New Chronicler, telling about the events of the XVI - AD. XVII centuries (Polish-Swedish intervention and peasant war), and "Chronicle of many rebellions." M.N. Tikhomirov. Orthodox worldview in the Russian chronicle tradition “Russian history amazes with its extraordinary consciousness and logical progression of phenomena,” wrote K.S. Aksakov more than 120 years ago. We often forget about this awareness, unwittingly blaspheming our ancestors, substituting their high spirituality for our misery. Meanwhile, history has brought to us numerous evidence of their harmonious worldview.

Among such evidence, chronicles are particularly distinguished by their historical completeness. In the development of Russian chronicles, it is customary to distinguish three periods: ancient, regional and all-Russian. Despite all the peculiarities of Russian chronicle traditions, be it “The Tale of Bygone Years” as edited by the Venerable Nestor the Chronicler, the Novgorod chronicles with their laconicism and dryness of language, or the Moscow chronicle collections, there is no doubt about the common ideological basis that determines their views. Orthodoxy gave the people a strong sense of the commonality of their historical destiny even in the most difficult times of appanage strife and Tatar rule. At the basis of Russian chronicles lies the famous “Tale of Bygone Years” - “the Russian land began to eat, who began to reign first in Kyiv and where the Russian land began to eat from.” Having had more than one edition, the Tale formed the basis of various local chronicles. It has not been preserved as a separate monument, having come to us as part of later chronicle codes - the Laurentian (XIV century) and Ipatiev (XV century). The story is an all-Russian chronicle compiled in 1113 in Kyiv on the basis of chronicles of the 11th century. and other sources - presumably of Greek origin. St. Nestor the chronicler, holy ascetic of the Kiev Pechersk, completed his work a year before his death. The chronicle was continued by another holy monk - St. Sylvester, abbot of the Vydubitsky St. Michael's Monastery in Kyiv. The Holy Church celebrates their memory, respectively, on October 27 and January 2, according to Art. Art. In "The Tale" one can clearly see the desire to give, if possible, comprehensive concepts about the course of world history. It begins with the biblical account of the creation of the world. Having thus declared his commitment to the Christian understanding of life, the author moves on to the history of the Russian people. After the Babylonian Pandemonium, when the peoples were divided, the Slavs stood out among the Japheth tribe, and among the Slavic tribes - the Russian people. Like everything in the created world, the course of Russian history takes place according to the will of God, princes are instruments of His will, virtue is rewarded, sins are punished by the Lord: famine, pestilence, cowardice, invasion of foreigners. Everyday details do not concern the author of the chronicle. His thought soars above vain concerns, lovingly dwelling on the deeds of holy ascetics, the valor of Russian princes, and the struggle against foreigners and infidels. But all this attracts the chronicler’s attention not in its bare historical “givenness,” but as evidence of God’s care for Russia.

In this series, the message about the visit to the Russian land of St. ap. Andrew the First-Called, who predicted the greatness of Kyiv and the future flourishing of Orthodoxy in Russia. The factual accuracy of this story cannot be verified, but its inner meaning is undeniable.

Russian Orthodoxy and the Russian people acquire the “first-called” apostolic dignity and purity of faith, which is subsequently confirmed by the equal-to-the-apostles dignity of Saints Methodius and Cyril, the enlighteners of the Slavs, and the holy blessed prince Vladimir the Baptist. The message of the chronicle emphasizes the nature of the Baptism of Rus', tacitly presuming for it the corresponding religious duties, the duty of Orthodox Church obedience. The author notes the voluntary nature of accepting service. This is served by the famous story about the choice of faiths, when “Volodimer convened his bolyars and the elders of the city.” The chronicle does not cite any circumstances restricting freedom of choice. “If you want to test much,” the “Bolyars and Elders” tell Vladimir, “by sending, test everyone... the service and how he serves God.” The desire for a godly life, the desire to find the correct path to God is Vladimir’s only motivating motive. The story of the ambassadors who returned after the test of faith is extremely revealing. Muslims are rejected because “there is no joy in them, but sadness,” Catholics - because they “have no vision of beauty.” We are talking, of course, not about worldly “fun” - Muslims have no less of it than anyone else, and not about everyday “sadness”. We are talking about the living religious experience received by the ambassadors. They were looking for that joy about which the Psalmist speaks: “Hear the voice of my prayer, my King and my God... And let all who trust in You rejoice, rejoice forever; and You will dwell in them, and those who love Your name will boast in You.” .

This joy and joy of a godly life is quiet, familiar to every sincere Orthodox believer from touching personal experience that cannot be explained in words. And among Catholics, the ambassadors were struck not by the lack of material beauty - although in terms of beauty and splendor, Catholic worship cannot be compared with Orthodox worship. A healthy religious instinct unmistakably determined the inferiority of Catholicism, which cut itself off from the conciliar totality of the Church, from its grace-filled fullness. “Behold, whatever is good, or whatever is good, let the brethren live together,” the Holy Scripture testifies. The absence of this beauty was felt by the well-meaning ambassadors. All the more striking for them was the contrast from their presence at the liturgy in the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople: “When we came to the Greeks, we now serve our God.” The service amazed the Russians so much that they repeat in confusion: “And we don’t know whether we were in heaven or on earth - for such beauty does not exist on earth - only we know for sure that God dwells there with people... And not We can forget that beauty." Their hearts, seeking religious consolation, received it in unexpected fullness and irresistible authenticity. The outcome of the matter was decided not by external economic considerations (the validity of which is very doubtful), but by living religious experience, the abundant presence of which is confirmed by the entire subsequent history of the Russian people. The Laurentian Code gives a fairly complete picture of the views of contemporaries on the course of Russian life. Here, for example, is a picture of the campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsians in 1184: “That same summer, God put in the hearts of the Russian princes, for all the Russian princes marched against the Polovtsians.” In the 70s of the 12th century. The pressure of the Polovtsians on the borders of the Russian principalities intensifies. The Russians are undertaking a series of retaliatory campaigns. Several local defeats of the Polovtsian troops follow, the result of which is their unification under the rule of one khan - Konchak. The military organization of the Polovtsians receives uniformity and harmony, weapons are improved, throwing machines and “Greek fire” appear: Rus' comes face to face with a united strong enemy army. The Polovtsians, seeing their superiority, take fortunate circumstances as a sign of God's favor. “Behold, God is far off, there are Russian princes and their armies in our hands.” But God’s Providence is not connected with considerations of human wisdom: the foolish people of other faiths “don’t know,” “as if they have neither courage nor thoughts against God,” the chronicler laments. In the battle that began, the Polovtsians “fleeed and persecuted the Holy Mother of God with the wrath of God.” The victory of the Russians is not the result of their own care: “The Lord brought great salvation to our princes and their howls over our enemies. The foreigners were defeated” with the help of God under the Protection of the Most Holy Theotokos, covering the God-loving Russian army with Her care. And the Russians themselves are well aware of this: “And Vladimir said: Behold the day that the Lord has made, we will rejoice and be glad on it. For the Lord has delivered us from our enemies and subdued our enemies under our nose.” And the Russian troops returned home after the victory, “glorifying God and the Holy Mother of God, the speedy intercessor of the Christian race.” It is hardly possible to more fully and clearly express the view of Russian history as an area of ​​all-encompassing action of God's Providence.

At the same time, the chronicler, as a church man, remained far from primitive fatalism. Acting in a decisive way in history, God's Providence at the same time does not suppress or limit the freedom of personal choice, which lies at the basis of man's responsibility for his deeds and actions. The historical material against which the concept of the religious and moral conditionality of Russian life is affirmed is the events associated with the changeable military happiness in the chronicle. The next year, after a successful campaign against the Polovtsians, carried out by the united forces of the princes, Igor Svyatoslavich, Prince of Novgorod-Seversky, organized an unsuccessful independent raid. The famous "Tale of Igor's Campaign" gives an exceptionally beautiful and lyrical description of this campaign. In the chronicle about the campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich, two stories have been preserved. One, more extensive and detailed, is in the Ipatiev Vault. The other, shorter one, is in Lavrentievsky. But even his condensed narrative quite clearly reflects the chronicler’s view of the freedom of human will as a force that, along with the unthinkable Providence of God, determines the course of history. This time, “we would be defeated by the wrath of God,” which fell on the Russian troops “for our sin.” Realizing the failure of the campaign as a natural result of evading their religious duty, “sighing and weeping spread” among the Russian soldiers, who recalled, in the words of the chronicler, the words of the prophet Isaiah: “Lord, in sorrow we remembered Thee.”

Sincere repentance was soon accepted by the merciful God, and “in a few short days, Prince Igor ran away from the Polovtsians” - that is, from Polovtsian captivity - “for the Lord will not leave the righteous in the hands of sinners, for the eyes of the Lord are on those who fear Him (look), and His ears are in their prayer (they are obedient to their prayers)." “Behold, having committed a sin for our sake,” the chronicler sums up, “our sins and untruths have multiplied.”

God admonishes those who sin with punishments; those who are virtuous, aware of their duty and fulfilling it, He has mercy and protects. God does not force anyone: man determines his own destiny, the people themselves determine their history - this is how the views of the chronicle can be briefly summarized. One can only reverently marvel at the purity and freshness of the Orthodox worldview of the chroniclers and their heroes, looking at the world with childlike faith, about which the Lord said: “I praise Thee, Father, Lord of heaven and earth, that Thou hast hidden this from the wise and prudent and revealed it to babes; , Father, for such has been Your good pleasure" (Luke 10:21). Developing and complementing each other, Russian chroniclers sought to create a holistic and consistent picture of their native history. This desire was reflected in its entirety in the Moscow chronicle tradition, as if crowning the efforts of many generations of chroniclers. “The Great Russian Chronicler”, the Trinity Chronicle, written under Metropolitan Cyprian, code 1448 and other chronicles, more and more suitable under the name “all-Russian”, despite the fact that they retained local characteristics, and were often written not in Moscow, represent as if the steps along which Russian self-consciousness ascended to an understanding of the unity of the religious destiny of the people. Mid-16th century became the era of the greatest church-state triumph in Rus'. The original Russian lands were brought together, the Kazan and Astrakhan kingdoms were annexed, and the path to the east was opened - to Siberia and Central Asia. Next in line was the opening of the western gates of the state - through Livonia.

All Russian life passed under the sign of reverent churchliness and internal religious concentration. It is not surprising, therefore, that it was during the reign of John IV Vasilyevich that a grandiose chronicle collection was created, reflecting a new understanding of Russian fate and its hidden meaning.

He described the entire history of mankind in the form of a succession of great kingdoms. In accordance with the importance attached to the completion of work so important for national self-awareness, the chronicle collection received the most luxurious design. Its 10 volumes were written on the best paper, specially purchased from royal reserves in France. The text was decorated with 15,000 skillfully executed miniatures depicting history “in faces”, for which the collection received the name “Facial Vault”. The last, tenth, volume of the collection was dedicated to the reign of Ivan Vasilyevich, covering events from 1535 to 1567. When this last volume (known in science as the “Synodal List”, since it belonged to the library of the Holy Synod) was basically ready, it underwent significant editorial editing Someone's hand made numerous additions, insertions and corrections right on the illustrated sheets. On a new, purely rewritten copy, which entered science under the name “Royal Book,” the same hand again made many new additions and amendments. It seems that the editor of the “Facebook Vault” was John IV himself, who consciously and purposefully worked to complete the “Russian ideology.”

Another collection of chronicles, which, along with the “Face Vault,” was supposed to create a coherent concept of Russian life, was the Degree Book. The basis of this enormous work was the idea that all Russian history from the time of the Baptism of Rus' to the reign of Ivan the Terrible should appear in the form of seventeen degrees (chapters), each of which corresponds to the reign of one or another prince. Summarizing the main thoughts of these extensive chronicles, we can say that they come down to two most important statements, which were destined to determine the course of all Russian life for centuries:

• 1. God is pleased to entrust the preservation of the truths of Revelation, necessary for the salvation of people, to individual nations and kingdoms, chosen by Himself for reasons unknown to the human mind. In Old Testament times, such a ministry was entrusted to Israel. In New Testament history it was successively entrusted to three kingdoms. Initially, the ministry was accepted by Rome, the capital of the world during early Christianity. Having fallen into the heresy of Latinism, he was removed from the ministry successively given to Orthodox Constantinople - the “second Rome” of the Middle Ages. Having encroached on the purity of the preserved faith due to selfish political calculations, agreeing to a union with Catholic heretics (at the Council of Florence in 1439), Byzantium lost the gift of service, which was transferred to the “third Rome” of recent times - to Moscow, the capital of the Russian Orthodox Kingdom. The Russian people are determined to preserve the truths of Orthodoxy “until the end of the age” - the second and glorious Coming of our Lord Jesus Christ. This is the meaning of his existence, all his aspirations and strengths must be subordinated to this;
• 2. The service assumed by the Russian people requires a corresponding organization of the Church, society and state. The divinely established form of existence of the Orthodox people is autocracy. The King is God's Anointed. He is not limited in his autocratic power by anything other than fulfilling the duties of a common service to all. The Gospel is the “constitution” of autocracy. The Orthodox Tsar is the personification of the chosenness and God-bearing nature of the entire people, its prayer chairman and guardian angel.

Great philosophers have often repeated that people who do not know their past have no future. You should know the history of your family, your people, your country, if only so that you don’t have to make the same discoveries and make the same mistakes.

Sources of information about past events include official state documents, records of religious, social, and educational institutions, preserved eyewitness accounts, and much more. Chronicles are considered the most ancient documentary source.

Chronicle is one of the genres of Old Russian literature, which existed from the 11th to the 17th centuries. At its core, it is a sequential presentation of significant events in history. The records were kept by year; in terms of volume and details of the presentation of the material, they could vary greatly.

What events deserved mention in the chronicles?

Firstly, these are turning points in the biography of Russian princes: marriage, the birth of heirs, the beginning of a reign, military exploits, death. Sometimes Russian chronicles described miracles occurring from the relics of deceased princes, such as Boris and Gleb, the first Russian saints.

Secondly, chroniclers paid attention to describing celestial eclipses, solar and lunar, epidemics of serious diseases, earthquakes, etc. Chroniclers often tried to establish a relationship between natural phenomena and historical events. For example, defeat in a battle could be explained by the special position of the stars in the sky.

Thirdly, ancient chronicles told about events of national importance: military campaigns, attacks by enemies, the construction of religious or administrative buildings, church affairs, etc.

Common features of famous chronicles

1) If you remember what a chronicle is, you can guess why this genre of literature received such a name. The fact is that instead of the word “year” the authors used the word “summer”. Each entry began with the words “In the summer,” followed by the year and a description of the event. If, from the chronicler’s point of view, nothing significant happened, then a note was written: “There was silence in the summer of XXXX.” The chronicler had no right to completely omit the description of a particular year.

2) Some Russian chronicles begin not with the emergence of the Russian state, which would be logical, but with the creation of the world. In this way, the chronicler sought to fit the history of his country into universal human history, to show the place and role of his homeland in his modern world. Dating was also carried out from the creation of the world, and not from the Nativity of Christ, as we do now. The interval between these dates is 5508 years. Therefore, the entry “In the summer of 6496” contains a description of the events of 988 - the Baptism of Rus'.

3) For work, the chronicler could use the works of his predecessors. But he not only included the materials they left behind in his narrative, but also gave them his own political and ideological assessment.

4) The chronicle differs from other genres of literature in its special style. The authors did not use any artistic devices to decorate their speech. The main thing for them was documentation and information content.

The connection between the chronicle and literary and folklore genres

The special style mentioned above, however, did not prevent chroniclers from periodically resorting to oral folk art or other literary genres. Ancient chronicles contain elements of legends, traditions, heroic epics, as well as hagiographic and secular literature.

Turning to the toponymic legend, the author sought to explain where the names of the Slavic tribes, ancient cities and the entire country came from. Echoes of ritual poetry are present in the description of weddings and funerals. Epic techniques could be used to depict the glorious Russian princes and their heroic deeds. And to illustrate the life of rulers, for example, the feasts they organize, there are elements of folk tales.

Hagiographic literature, with its clear structure and symbolism, provided chroniclers with both material and a method for describing miraculous phenomena. They believed in the intervention of divine forces in human history and reflected this in their writings. The authors used elements of secular literature (teachings, stories, etc.) to reflect and illustrate their views.

Texts of legislative acts, princely and church archives, and other official documents were also woven into the fabric of the narrative. This helped the chronicler to give the most complete picture of important events. What is a chronicle if not a comprehensive historical description?

The most famous chronicles

It should be noted that chronicles are divided into local, which became widespread during the times of feudal fragmentation, and all-Russian, describing the history of the entire state. The list of the most famous is presented in the table:

Until the 19th century, it was believed that “The Tale of Bygone Years” was the first chronicle in Rus', and its creator, monk Nestor, was the first Russian historiographer. This assumption was refuted by A.A. Shkhmatov, D.S. Likhachev and other scientists. “The Tale of Bygone Years” has not survived, but its individual editions are known from lists in later works - the Laurentian and Ipatiev Chronicles.

Chronicle in the modern world

By the end of the 17th century, the chronicles had lost their historical significance. More accurate and objective ways of recording events have emerged. History began to be studied from the standpoint of official science. And the word “chronicle” acquired additional meanings. We no longer remember what a chronicle is when we read the headings “Chronicles of life and work N”, “Chronicle of a museum” (theater or any other institution).

There is a magazine, a film studio, a radio program called “Chronicles,” and fans of computer games are probably familiar with the game “Arkham Chronicles.”

Speaking about copyists of books in ancient Rus', we should also mention our chroniclers

Almost every monastery had its own chronicler, who wrote down information about the most important events of his time in brief notes. It is believed that the chronicles were preceded by calendar notes, which are considered the ancestor of any chronicle. According to their content, chronicles can be divided into 1) state chronicles, 2) family or clan chronicles, 3) monastic or church chronicles.

Family chronicles are compiled in the clans of serving people in order to see the public service of all ancestors.

The sequence observed in the chronicle is chronological: the years are described one after another.

If nothing noteworthy happened in any year, then nothing appears in the chronicle against that year.

For example, in the chronicle of Nestor:

“In the summer of 6368 (860). In the summer of 6369. In the summer of 6370. I expelled the Varangians overseas, and did not give them tribute, and began to suffer from violence within themselves; and there is no truth in them...

In the summer of 6371. In the summer of 6372. In the summer of 6373. In the summer of 6374 Askold and Dir went to the Greeks...”

If a “sign from heaven” happened, the chronicler noted it too; if there was a solar eclipse, the chronicler innocently wrote down that on such and such a year and date “the sun died.”

The father of the Russian chronicle is considered to be the Monk Nestor, a monk of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra. According to the research of Tatishchev, Miller and Schletser, he was born in 1056, entered the monastery at the age of 17 and died in 1115. His chronicle has not survived, but a list from this chronicle has reached us. This list is called the Laurentian List, or the Laurentian Chronicle, because it was copied by the Suzdal monk Laurentius in 1377.

In the Patericon of Pechersk it is said about Nestor: “that he is content with the life of summer, toiling in the affairs of chronicle writing and remembering eternal summer.”

The Laurentian Chronicle is written on parchment, on 173 sheets; up to the fortieth page it is written in the ancient charter, and from page 41 to the end - in the semi-charter. The manuscript of the Laurentian Chronicle, which belonged to Count Musin-Pushkin, was presented by him to Emperor Alexander I, who presented it to the Imperial Public Library.

Of the punctuation marks in the chronicle, only the period is used, which, however, rarely remains in its place.

This chronicle contained events up to 1305 (6813).

Lavrentiev's chronicle begins with the following words:

“This is the story of bygone years, where the Russian land came from, who in Kyiv began to reign first, and where the Russian land came from.

Let's begin this story. After the flood, the first sons of Noah divided the earth....”, etc.

In addition to the Laurentian Chronicle, the “Novgorod Chronicle”, “Pskov Chronicle”, “Nikon Chronicle” are known, so called because on the “sheets there is a signature (clip) of Patriarch Nikon, and many others. Friend.

In total there are up to 150 variants or lists of chronicles.

Our ancient princes commanded that everything that happened in their time, good and bad, be entered into the chronicle, without any concealment or embellishment: “our first rulers, without anger, commanded all the good and bad that happened to be described, and other images of the phenomenon will be based on them.”

During the period of civil strife, in the event of some misunderstanding, the Russian princes sometimes turned to the chronicle as written evidence.