Synonyms are incomplete. §eight

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I. Complete synonyms (doublets)- these are words that are identical in meaning, for example: stop - stop, strike - strike, original - original, identical - identical, everywhere - everywhere (examples of L.P. Krysin).

Often in the language, doublets are a native Russian word and a borrowed one: spelling - spelling, level - waterline, hydrotherapy - hydrotherapy, etc.

Doublets are a rather rare phenomenon in the literary language, since as a result of the tendency to save language resources, they are either eliminated (self-eliminated) from the language, or go into the category of incomplete synonyms. For example, in the 30s. absolute synonyms were the words "airplane" and "airplane", at present the word "airplane" is considered obsolete.

In dialects, on the contrary, doublet relations between the national word and the dialect proper are very common: puddle - lyva, very - helluva lot, scoff - go out, attic - tower, yard - fence, pantry - treasury, freeze - sting (Russian old-timer dialects of the Krasnoyarsk Territory ).

II. Synonyms incomplete(quasi-synonyms) (Greek gvasi - ‘almost’, ‘approximately’) are words that are close, but not identical in meaning. Incomplete synonyms are divided into ideographic, stylistic, semantic-stylistic and differing in compatibility with different words.

1. Ideographic synonyms - these are incomplete synonyms, differing in shades of meanings:

1) the so-called gradual synonyms indicate a different degree of manifestation of a sign or action, for example: burn - glow; run - race - fly; love - adore - idolize; resistant - iron; bad - lousy; only - only;

2) synonyms can have a different scope of meanings, etc., for example: writer and writer. Writer - 'a person who writes works of art', writer - 'writer, publicist, critic'.

From a logical point of view, there can be relations of inclusion and intersection between incomplete ideographic synonyms. If the meaning of one of the synonyms is completely “embedded” in the meaning of the second, and at the same time, there are still some semantic components in the meaning of the second, then there are relations of inclusion between them, for example: contract, pact, convention. The word contract has the most general meaning, it is used in relation to obligations of a different nature, content, and importance. The pact and the convention have a more limited meaning: the pact is usually used in relation to a 'political, military treaty of special importance and significance'; convention is called ‘agreement on some particular, special matter’. Compare: "ratification of the peace treaty"; "treaty of friendship and mutual cooperation"; “there is a condition in the contract…”; "Franco-Russian consultative pact"; "International Convention on the Standards for the Treatment of Prisoners of War"; "Marine convention" (Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language. T. 1–2. L .: Nauka, 1970). "Pact" and "convention", thus, are a kind of treaties. The same thing: cut - shred, hurt - hurt, carry - drag.

Some researchers do not consider words expressing generic relations (hypernyms) as synonyms.

If the meanings of incomplete synonyms have a common part and the meanings of each of them differ in some feature, then they talk about the intersection of their meanings, for example: intelligible - articulate - chased speech. The general meaning is ‘clear, legible, pronounced’. Intelligible - ‘clearly pronounced, well perceived by ear’; articulate - ‘with a distinct pronunciation of each element of speech’; chased - ‘not only clear, but also such, each element of which is emphasized, separated from the other’. The same: greedy - stingy (man), swampy - swampy (place), cheerful - optimistic (performance), etc.

2. Stylistic synonyms are incomplete synonyms that differ in stylistic coloring. The category of stylistic ones includes: 1) synonyms belonging to different functional styles of the language: cunning (neutr.) - rogue (colloquial); eyes (neutral) - eyes (high, poetic); sadness (neutr.) - sorrow (book); refrigerator (neutral) - refrigerator (special); 2) synonyms that differ in the degree of modernity: look - see (outdated); very - velmy (obsolete); neck - neck (outdated); 3) synonyms that differ in emotionally expressive coloring: look (neutr.) - contemplate (ironic); shoulder (neutral) - shoulder (reduced - caress.); smell - stink (disapproved); 4) synonyms related to different forms of the national language: speak (general) - gutarit (dialect); look (general) - stare (simple); young man (general) - frame (slang), they are not recognized by all scientists (see SYNONYMS); 5) synonyms are also close to them, differing in compatibility with different words: unforgettable (friend, time) - unforgettable (with wide compatibility); brown (eyes, horse) - brown (with wide compatibility); bosom (friend) - close (with wide compatibility).

In some cases, synonyms simultaneously differ in shades of meaning and stylistic coloring (semantic-stylistic synonyms), for example: interesting - entertaining. Compare: interesting - ‘exciting attention with something significant’; entertaining - 'exciting only external interest'. In addition, interesting (neutral) - amusing (colloquial).

3. Contextual synonyms - These are words that come close in their meanings in context, for example:

How many times have I tried speed up

The time that carried me forward.

whip up, scare away his, spur,

To hear how it goes.

(S.Ya. Marshak)

In the literary language, the words speed up, whip up, scare, spur are not synonyms, but in the text they appear in a similar meaning, and such as whip and spur, create the impression of comparison (time is a horse).

Contextual synonyms are often supported by a syntactic position, since they are homogeneous members of a sentence, or a word-formation model (all words are formed according to the same model); sometimes author's occasionalisms enter into synonymous relations: “And the spirit from the earth devilish, clean"(M. Sholokhov); “A strong wind flies freely over a wide distance ... Here he picked up thin, flexible branches - and fluttered leaves, started talking, rustled, swept in an emerald scattering in the azure sky "(V. Gapeeva, E. Kuznetsova).

For literature, see the article SYNONYMS.

§eight. SYNONYMS

Synonymy (from the Greek synōnymia - “same name”) is one of the most common types of systemic relations in vocabulary. Synonyms are words that have the same or similar meaning but differ in form.

There are types of synonyms:

1. Full (absolute) synonyms- words that have exactly the same meaning: linguistics - linguistics, boundless - boundless. These cases are extremely rare in the language. The largest number of full synonyms falls on the share of scientific terminology. As a rule, at least one of the terms of a synonymous pair belongs to borrowed ones: universe - space, alphabet - alphabet. In addition, full synonyms are limited to almost one part of speech - the noun.

2. Incomplete synonyms. These include:

a) words that are close, but not completely identical in meaning - semantic (ideographic) synonyms: artist - painter, equipment - clothes;

b) style synonyms- words that have the same meaning, but refer to different styles of speech: eyes (neutral) - eyes (book), run away (neutr.) - run away (colloquial);

in) stylistic synonyms- words with different connotations: shack - shack (neb.) Style and stylistic differences are very closely related to each other. According to M.V. Nikitin, the differences in the use of such words are connected “not with what they express, but with the fact who, when, where, for whom is speaking."

Differences in meaning can be superimposed on stylistic and stylistic differences: to flirt - to chatter, to persuade - to beg. Such synonyms can be characterized as semantic-stylistic, semantic-stylistic, semantic-stylistic-style.

It is typical for synonyms to form not only pairs, but also entire synonymic rows: laugh, chuckle, smile, giggle, chuckle, chuckle, laugh. One word always stands out among the words of the synonymic series - it, as it were, embodies in its meaning the main thing that is inherent in all members of the synonymic series, and is stylistically neutral. It is customary to call him dominant synonymous row. So, in the above synonymous series, the dominant is the word laugh.

A detailed lexico-semantic analysis of the synonymic series is presented in the table:

There are several laws associated with the phenomenon of synonymy in the language:

1. Objects and phenomena that play an important role in the life of a language community are designated by a large number of synonyms . For example, extensive synonymic series in Russian make up verbs with a dominant speak : to rant, to proclaim, to babble, to chat, to babble, babble, crackle, ornate; nouns with dominance food : food, provisions, food, provisions, grubs.

Over the past decades, the synonymic series has grown especially money , grandmother, mani, green, cabbage- mainly due to jargon and stylistically reduced vocabulary.

2. Charles Breal's law, orlaw distributions: words once synonymous gradually diverge in meaning, stylistic coloring, or in some other way.

Indeed, the language does not tolerate doublets. Such a state of the language, in which the same meaning would be expressed by many words of different form, V.K. Trediakovsky compared with how if a cook served the same dish for dinner in different plates. Could this be considered wealth?

The action of Sh. Breal's law explains the fact that full synonyms in the language do not exist for long. One of the words gradually acquires an additional stylistic connotation ( hail - city, daughter - daughter), can expand or narrow the value ( merchant– the guest), go into passive vocabulary (consumption – tuberculosis). Between full synonyms, there may be differences in compatibility ( ABC morse - alphabet?), they may have different derivational potentials ( linguistics - linguistics, linguistics - ?).

3 . Law "attraction of synonyms": if one of the words of the synonymous series begins to be used in a figurative sense, then other synonyms develop a figurative meaning.

Yes, adjective red in modern Russian, in addition to the direct meaning “color of blood”, it has a figurative “beautiful, bright” (historically, this meaning was the first). Among the synonyms of the lexeme red included pink"pale red". Compare with its other meaning in combinations: look through rose colored glasses"to present everything in a pleasant way", pink dreams"pleasant, promising joy, happiness."

Interesting history of the word raspberry -"Red of a thick tone with an admixture of a violet hue." adjective combined raspberry ring"pleasant, soft in timbre" is its homonym, derived from the name of the Belgian city of Malin, where the best bells were cast. However, for most Russian speakers, these two meanings are associated with each other. This connection is supported by the general direction of development of the meanings of all words of the synonymic series with a dominant red.

The action of the law of "attraction" is often wider, goes beyond the synonymic series. So, many adjectives with the meaning of color are actively developing figurative meanings ( white, brown, green- as the names of political parties, movements).

The modern linguist M.V. Nikitin called synonymy “one of the eternal problems of linguistics that does not receive a generally accepted solution, despite ongoing efforts both in theoretical understanding of the phenomenon and in the practical compilation of synonym dictionaries.” Thus, most researchers agree that each individual meaning of a polysemantic word has its own synonyms. Others under the "proximity" of synonymous words mean the coincidence of a certain number of their meanings. One thing is certain: synonymy, like many other phenomena in the language, is gradual, or relative, in nature, i.e. two words can be synonymous to a greater or lesser extent. When common components prevail in the meanings of two words, we consider them synonyms. But words, in which the similarity of meanings is very insignificant, in certain contexts become synonyms: the differences between them are, as it were, “extinguished”. Therefore, one should distinguish language synonyms and speech (author's, individual).