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Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schönhausen(German Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schönhausen ; April 1, 1815 - July 30, 1898) - prince, politician, statesman, the first chancellor of the German Empire (Second Reich), nicknamed the "Iron Chancellor". He had the honorary rank (peacetime) of the Prussian Colonel General with the rank of Field Marshal (March 20, 1890).

Biography

Origin

In the meantime, a powerful opposition coalition was forming in the Reichstag, the core of which was the newly created centrist Catholic Party, united with parties representing national minorities. To counter the clericalism of the Catholic Center, Bismarck went to rapprochement with the National Liberals, who had the largest share in the Reichstag. started Kulturkampf- Bismarck's struggle with the political claims of the papacy and Catholic parties. This struggle had a negative effect on the unity of Germany, but it became a matter of principle for Bismarck.

Bismarck, 1873

Fearing French revenge in the future, Bismarck sought rapprochement with Russia. On March 13, 1871, Bismarck signed, together with representatives of Russia and other countries, the London Convention, which abolished Russia's ban on having a navy in the Black Sea. In 1872, Bismarck and Gorchakov organized a meeting in Berlin of three emperors - German, Austrian and Russian. They came to an agreement to jointly confront the revolutionary danger. After that, Bismarck had a conflict with the German ambassador to France, Arnim, who, like Bismarck, belonged to the conservative wing, which alienated the chancellor from the conservative junkers. The result of this confrontation was the arrest of Arnim under the pretext of improper handling of documents. The long struggle with Arnim and the implacable resistance of the center party of Windhorst could not but affect the health and character of the chancellor.

Sunset

The elections of 1881 were in fact a defeat for Bismarck: Bismarck's conservative parties and liberals lost to the Center parties, progressive liberals and socialists. The situation became even more serious when the opposition parties united in order to cut the cost of maintaining the army. Once again, there was a danger that Bismarck would not stay in the chancellor's chair. Constant work and unrest undermined Bismarck's health - he was too fat and suffered from insomnia. Dr. Schwenniger helped him regain his health, who put the chancellor on a diet and forbade drinking strong wines. The result was not long in coming - very soon the former efficiency returned to the chancellor, and he set to work with renewed vigor.

This time, colonial politics came into his field of vision. For the previous twelve years, Bismarck had argued that colonies were a luxury that Germany could not afford. But in the course of 1884 Germany acquired vast territories in Africa. German colonialism brought Germany closer to her eternal rival France, but created tension with England. Otto von Bismarck managed to draw his son Herbert into the colonial affairs, who was involved in settling issues with England. But there were also enough problems with his son - he inherited only bad traits from his father and drank.

In March 1887, Bismarck succeeded in forming a stable conservative majority in the Reichstag, which was nicknamed "The Cartel". In the wake of chauvinistic hysteria and the threat of war with France, the voters decided to rally around the Chancellor. This gave him the opportunity to push through the Reichstag a law on a seven-year term of service. In the realm of foreign policy, Bismarck then makes one of his biggest mistakes. Supporting the anti-Russian policy of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans, he self-confidently believed in the impossibility of a Franco-Russian alliance (“The Tsar and the Marseillaise are incompatible”). Nevertheless, he decided to conclude a secret so-called with Russia. "reinsurance contract", but only up to .

Otto von Bismarck spent the rest of his life on his estate Friedrichsra near Hamburg, rarely leaving it. His wife Johanna died.

In the last years of his life, Bismarck was pessimistic about the prospects for European politics due to the Franco-Russian alliance and the sharp deterioration in Germany's relations with England. Emperor Wilhelm II visited him several times.

Links

  • Otto von Bismarck Foundation (German)

For more than a century there have been fierce disputes about the personality and deeds of Otto von Bismarck. The attitude towards this figure changed depending on the historical era. It is said that in German school textbooks the assessment of Bismarck's role changed no less than six times.

Otto von Bismarck, 1826

Not surprisingly, both in Germany itself and in the world as a whole, the real Otto von Bismarck gave way to myth. The myth of Bismarck describes him as a hero or a tyrant, depending on what political views the mythmaker adheres to. The "Iron Chancellor" is often credited with words that he never uttered, while many of Bismarck's really important historical sayings are little known.

Otto von Bismarck was born on April 1, 1815 into a family of small estate nobles from the Brandenburg province of Prussia. The Bismarcks were Junkers, descendants of conquering knights who founded German settlements east of the Vistula, where Slavic tribes had previously lived.

Otto, even while studying at school, showed an interest in the history of world politics, military and peaceful cooperation between various countries. The boy was going to choose the diplomatic path, as his parents wanted.

However, in his youth, Otto was not distinguished by diligence and discipline, preferring to spend a lot of time in entertainment with friends. This was especially evident in his university years, when the future chancellor not only took part in fun feasts, but also regularly fought in duels. Bismarck had 27 of those, and only one of them ended in failure for Otto - he was injured, a trace of which in the form of a scar on his cheek remained for life.

"Mad Junker"

After university, Otto von Bismarck tried to get a job in the diplomatic service, but was refused - his "riotous" reputation affected. As a result, Otto got a job in the civil service in the city of Aachen, recently included in Prussia, but after the death of his mother he was forced to take up the management of his own estates.

Here Bismarck, to the considerable surprise of those who knew him in his youth, showed prudence, showed excellent knowledge in economic matters and turned out to be a very successful and zealous owner.

But youthful habits did not go away completely - the neighbors with whom he was in conflict gave Otto his first nickname, "Mad Junker".

The dream of a political career began to come true in 1847, when Otto von Bismarck became a member of the United Landtag of the Prussian Kingdom.

The middle of the 19th century was the time of revolutions in Europe. Liberals and socialists sought to expand the rights and freedoms enshrined in the Constitution.

Against this background, the appearance of a young politician with an extremely conservative attitude, but at the same time possessing undoubted oratorical skills, was a complete surprise.

The revolutionaries greeted Bismarck with hostility, but surrounded by the Prussian king, they noted an interesting politician who could benefit the crown in the future.

Mr. Ambassador

When the revolutionary winds in Europe subsided, Bismarck's dream finally came true - he found himself in the diplomatic service. The main goal of Prussia's foreign policy, according to Bismarck, during this period was to be the strengthening of the country's position as a center for the unification of German lands and free cities. The main obstacle to the implementation of such plans was Austria, which also sought to take control of the German lands.

That is why Bismarck believed that Prussian policy in Europe should be based on the need to contribute to the weakening of the role of Austria through various alliances.

In 1857, Otto von Bismarck was appointed Prussian ambassador to Russia. Years of work in St. Petersburg had a strong impact on Bismarck's subsequent attitude towards Russia. He was closely acquainted with Vice-Chancellor Alexander Gorchakov, who highly appreciated Bismarck's diplomatic talents.

Unlike many foreign diplomats working in Russia, past and present, Otto von Bismarck not only mastered the Russian language, but was able to understand the character and mentality of the people. It is from the time of work in St. Petersburg that Bismarck's famous warning about the inadmissibility of war with Russia for Germany, which will inevitably have disastrous consequences for the Germans themselves, will come out.

A new round of Otto von Bismarck's career took place after Wilhelm I ascended the Prussian throne in 1861.

The ensuing constitutional crisis, caused by disagreements between the king and the Landtag on the issue of expanding the military budget, forced Wilhelm I to look for a figure capable of pursuing state policy with a “hard hand”.

Such a figure was Otto von Bismarck, who at that time held the post of Prussian ambassador to France.

Empire according to Bismarck

The extremely conservative views of Bismarck made even Wilhelm I doubt such a choice. Nevertheless, on September 23, 1862, Otto von Bismarck was appointed head of the Prussian government.

In one of his first speeches, to the consternation of the liberals, Bismarck proclaimed the idea of ​​uniting the lands around Prussia with "iron and blood."

In 1864, Prussia and Austria acted as allies in a war with Denmark over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Success in this war greatly strengthened the position of Prussia among the German states.

In 1866, the confrontation between Prussia and Austria for influence on the German states reached its climax and resulted in a war in which Italy took the side of Prussia.

The war ended with the crushing defeat of Austria, which finally lost its influence. As a result, in 1867, the federal formation of the North German Confederation was created, headed by Prussia.

The final completion of the unification of Germany was possible only with the accession of the South German states, which France sharply opposed.

If with Russia, concerned about the strengthening of Prussia, Bismarck managed to settle the issue through diplomacy, then the French emperor Napoleon III was determined to stop the creation of a new empire by force of arms.

The Franco-Prussian war that broke out in 1870 ended in complete disaster for both France and Napoleon III himself, who was captured after the battle of Sedan.

The last obstacle was removed, and on January 18, 1871, Otto von Bismarck proclaimed the creation of the Second Reich (German Empire), of which Wilhelm I became Kaiser.

January 1871 was Bismarck's major triumph.

There is no prophet in his own country...

His further activities were aimed at containing internal and external threats. Under the internal conservative, Bismarck meant the strengthening of the positions of the Social Democrats, under the external - attempts at revenge by France and Austria, as well as other European countries that joined them, fearing the strengthening of the German Empire.

The foreign policy of the "iron chancellor" went down in history as "Bismarck's system of alliances."

The main task of the agreements being concluded was to prevent the creation in Europe of powerful anti-German alliances that would threaten the new empire with a war on two fronts.

To this end, Bismarck managed to successfully manage until his retirement, but his cautious policy began to irritate the German elite. The new empire wanted to take part in the redistribution of the world, for which it was ready to fight with everyone.

Bismarck declared that as long as he was Chancellor, there would be no colonial policy in Germany. However, even before his resignation, the first German colonies appeared in Africa and the Pacific, which indicated the fall of Bismarck's influence in Germany.

The "Iron Chancellor" began to interfere with a new generation of politicians who no longer dreamed of a united Germany, but of world domination.

The year 1888 went down in German history as the "Year of the Three Emperors". After the death of 90-year-old Wilhelm I and his son, Frederick III, who suffered from throat cancer, 29-year-old Wilhelm II, the grandson of the first emperor of the Second Reich, ascended the throne.

Then no one knew yet that Wilhelm II, rejecting all the advice and warnings of Bismarck, would drag Germany into the First World War, which would put an end to the empire created by the "Iron Chancellor".

In March 1890, the 75-year-old Bismarck was sent into an honorable retirement, and with him his policies also resigned. Just a few months later, Bismarck's main nightmare came true - France and Russia entered into a military alliance, which England then joined.

The "Iron Chancellor" passed away in 1898 without seeing Germany rushing at full speed towards a suicidal war. The name of Bismarck during the First World War and at the beginning of the Second World War will be actively used in Germany for propaganda purposes.

But his warnings about the destructiveness of the war with Russia, about the nightmare of a "war on two fronts", will remain unclaimed.

The Germans paid a very high price for this selective memory of Bismarck.

Otto von Bismarck is one of the iconic figures in world history. The "Iron Chancellor" of Prussia, he created the German Empire (II Reich) and managed to strengthen its position in the world; Bismarck was well versed in foreign policy, he knew well the state of European states and Russia (he lived in St. Petersburg for a long time, being Prussia's ambassador to our country). In his book, Bismarck talks about how the German Empire was created, how the political map of Europe changed after that, what problems European countries faced, what role Russia played in Europe. Many of Bismarck's warnings, including those concerning future military conflicts, have fully come true, and his assessments of the future that the world expects have not lost their relevance today.

A series: Giants of political thought

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by the LitRes company.

2014 reissue


© Translated from German, 2016

© TD Algorithm LLC, 2016

Foreword

Biography of Otto von Bismarck and the main stages of his activities

Otto Eduard Leopold Karl-Wilhelm-Ferdinand von Bismarck-Schönhausen was born on April 1, 1815 into a family of small estate nobles in the Brandenburg province (now Saxony-Anhalt). All generations of the Bismarck family served the rulers in the peaceful and military fields, but did not show themselves in anything special. Simply put, the Bismarcks were Junkers, the descendants of conquering knights who established settlements in the lands east of the Elbe River. The Bismarcks could not boast of extensive landholdings, wealth or aristocratic luxury, but were considered noble.

From 1822 to 1827, Otto studied at the Plament school, which emphasized physical development. But young Otto was not happy with this, which he often wrote to his parents about. At the age of twelve, Otto left the Plaman school, but did not leave Berlin, continuing his studies at the Friedrich the Great gymnasium on Friedrichstrasse, and when he was fifteen, he moved to the Gray Monastery gymnasium. Otto showed himself to be an average, not outstanding student. But he studied French and German well, being fond of reading foreign literature. The main interests of the young man lay in the field of politics of the past years, the history of military and peaceful rivalry of various countries. At that time, the young man, unlike his mother, was far from religion.

After graduating from high school, his mother assigned Otto to the Georg August University in Göttingen, which was located in the Kingdom of Hanover. It was assumed that the young Bismarck would learn law and later enter the diplomatic service. However, Bismarck was not in the mood for serious study and preferred entertainment with friends, of which there were many in Göttingen. Otto took part in 27 duels, in one of which he was wounded for the first and only time in his life - he had a scar on his cheek from the wound. In general, Otto von Bismarck at that time was not much different from the "golden" German youth.

Bismarck did not complete his education in Göttingen - life in a big way turned out to be burdensome for his pocket, and under the threat of arrest by the university authorities, he left the city. For a whole year he was enrolled at the New Capital University of Berlin, where he defended his dissertation in philosophy in the field of political economy. This was the end of his university education. Naturally, Bismarck immediately decided to start a career in the diplomatic field, which his mother had high hopes for. But the then Prussian foreign minister turned down the young Bismarck, advising him "to look for a place in some administrative institution within Germany, and not in the sphere of European diplomacy." It is possible that the minister's decision was influenced by rumors about Otto's turbulent student life and his passion for sorting things out through a duel.


Otto Eduard Leopold Karl-Wilhelm-Ferdinand von Bismarck-Schönhausen - the first chancellor (from March 21, 1871 - March 20, 1890) of the German Empire, who carried out the plan for the unification of Germany along the Little German path and was nicknamed the "Iron Chancellor"


As a result, Bismarck went to work in Aachen, which had recently become part of Prussia. The influence of France was still felt in this resort town, and Bismarck was mainly concerned with the problems connected with the accession of this frontier territory to the Prussian-dominated customs union. But the work, in the words of Bismarck himself, "was not burdensome", and he had plenty of time to read and enjoy life. During this period, he nearly married the daughter of an English parish priest, Isabella Lorraine-Smith.

Having fallen out of favor in Aachen, Bismarck was forced to enter military service - in the spring of 1838 he enrolled in the guards battalion of huntsmen. However, his mother's illness shortened his term of service: many years of caring for children and the estate undermined her health. The death of his mother put an end to Bismarck's throwing in search of a business - it became quite clear that he would have to manage his Pomeranian estates.

Having settled in Pomerania, Otto von Bismarck began to think about ways to increase the profitability of his estates and soon won the respect of his neighbors - both with theoretical knowledge and practical success. Life on the estate disciplined Bismarck greatly, especially when compared with his student years. He proved to be a quick-witted and practical landowner. But still, student habits made themselves felt, and the surrounding junkers called him "mad."

Bismarck soon had his first opportunity to enter politics as a deputy to the newly formed United Landtag of the Prussian Kingdom. He decided not to lose this chance and on May 11, 1847, he took his deputy seat, postponing his own wedding for a while.

It was the time of the most acute confrontation between liberals and conservative pro-royal forces: the liberals demanded from the Prussian king Frederick William IV the approval of the constitution and greater civil liberties, but the king was in no hurry to grant them; he needed money to build a railway from Berlin to East Prussia. It was for this purpose that he convened in April 1847 the United Diet, consisting of eight provincial Diet.

After his first speech in the Landtag, Bismarck became notorious. In his speech, he tried to refute the liberal deputy's assertion about the constitutional nature of the 1813 war of liberation. As a result, thanks to the press, the “mad Junker” from Pomerania turned into a “mad” deputy of the Berlin Landtag.

1848 brought a whole wave of revolutions - in France, Italy, Austria. In Prussia, the revolution also broke out under the pressure of patriotic liberals who demanded the unification of Germany and the creation of a Constitution. The king was forced to accept the demands. Bismarck was at first afraid of the revolution and was even going to help lead the army to Berlin, but soon his ardor cooled down, and only despondency and disappointment remained in the monarch, who made concessions.

Due to his reputation as an incorrigible conservative, Bismarck had no chance of getting into the new Prussian National Assembly, elected by popular vote of the male part of the population. Otto was afraid for the traditional rights of the junkers, but soon calmed down and admitted that the revolution was less radical than it seemed. He had no choice but to return to his estates and write for the new conservative newspaper, the Kreuzeitung. At this time, there was a gradual strengthening of the so-called "camarilla" - a block of conservative politicians, which included Otto von Bismarck.

The logical outcome of the strengthening of the camarilla was the counter-revolutionary coup of 1848, when the king interrupted the meeting of parliament and sent troops to Berlin. Despite all the merits of Bismarck in preparing this coup, the king refused him a ministerial post, branding him an "inveterate reactionary." The king was not at all in the mood to untie the hands of the reactionaries: soon after the coup, he published the Constitution, which combined the principle of monarchy with the creation of a bicameral parliament. The monarch also reserved the right to absolute veto and the right to rule by emergency decrees. This Constitution did not live up to the aspirations of the liberals, but Bismarck still seemed too progressive.

However, Bismarck was forced to accept and decided to try to move to the lower house of parliament. With great difficulty, Bismarck managed to get through both rounds of elections. He took his place as a deputy on February 26, 1849. However, Bismarck's negative attitude towards German unification and the Frankfurt Parliament hit his reputation hard. After the dissolution of parliament by the king, Bismarck practically lost his chances of being re-elected. But this time he was lucky, because the king changed the electoral system, which saved Bismarck from having to conduct an election campaign. On August 7, Otto von Bismarck again took his deputy seat.

Not much time passed, and a serious conflict arose between Austria and Prussia, which could develop into a full-scale war. Both states considered themselves leaders of the German world and tried to draw small German principalities into the orbit of their influence. This time, Erfurt became the stumbling block, and Prussia had to give in, concluding the Olmütz Agreement. Bismarck actively supported this agreement, as he believed that Prussia could not win this war. After some hesitation, the king appointed Bismarck as Prussian representative to the Frankfurt Federal Diet. Soon Bismarck met the most famous political figure in Austria, Clement Metternich.

During the Crimean War, Bismarck resisted Austrian attempts to mobilize German armies for war with Russia. He became an ardent supporter of the German Confederation and an opponent of Austrian domination. As a result, Bismarck became the main supporter of an alliance with Russia and France (which until recently had been at war with each other) directed against Austria. First of all, it was necessary to establish contact with France, for which Bismarck left for Paris on April 4, 1857, where he met with Emperor Napoleon III, who did not make much impression on him. But due to the illness of the king and a sharp turn in the foreign policy of Prussia, Bismarck's plans were not destined to come true, and he was sent as an ambassador to Russia.

According to the opinion prevailing in Russian historiography, Bismarck's formation as a diplomat during his stay in Russia was greatly influenced by his interaction with the Russian Vice-Chancellor Gorchakov. Bismarck already had the diplomatic qualities necessary for this post. He had a natural mind and political insight.

Gorchakov predicted a great future for Bismarck. Once, already being chancellor, he said, pointing to Bismarck: “Look at this man! Under Frederick the Great, he could have been his minister." In Russia, Bismarck learned the Russian language and spoke very decently, and also understood the essence of the Russian way of thinking, which greatly helped him in the future in choosing the right political line towards Russia.

He took part in the Russian royal fun - bear hunting, and even killed two bears, but stopped this activity, saying that it was dishonorable to act with a gun against unarmed animals. In one of these hunts, he had frostbite on his legs so badly that there was a question of amputation.

In January 1861, King Frederick William IV died and the former regent Wilhelm I took his place, after which Bismarck was transferred as ambassador to Paris.

Bismarck consistently pursued a policy of German unification. The phrase "iron and blood" was used by Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck on September 30, 1862, in a speech before the budget committee of the parliament, where, among other things, it was said:

“Germany does not look at the liberalism of Prussia, but at its power; let Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden be tolerant of liberalism. Therefore, no one will give you the role of Prussia; Prussia must muster her forces and keep them until the favorable moment, which has already been missed several times. The borders of Prussia, in accordance with the Vienna agreements, do not favor the normal life of the state; important issues of the present day are not decided by speeches and decisions of the majority - this was a major mistake in 1848 and 1849 - but by iron and blood.

The background is as follows: the regent under the incapacitated King Frederick William IV - Prince Wilhelm, closely associated with the army, was extremely dissatisfied with the existence of the Landwehr - the territorial army, which played a decisive role in the fight against Napoleon and retained liberal sentiments. Moreover, the Landwehr, relatively independent of the government, proved ineffective in putting down the 1848 revolution. Therefore, he supported the Minister of War of Prussia, Roon, in developing a military reform that involved the creation of a regular army with an extended service life of three years in the infantry and four years in the cavalry. Military spending was supposed to increase by 25 percent. This met with resistance and the king dissolved the liberal government, replacing it with a reactionary administration. But again the budget was not approved.

In 1861, Wilhelm became King Wilhelm I of Prussia. Knowing Bismarck's position as an extreme conservative, the king had serious doubts about Bismarck's appointment as minister. However, at an audience in Babelsberg on September 22, 1862, Bismarck assured the king that he would serve him as faithfully as a vassal to his overlord. On September 23, 1862, the king appointed Bismarck minister-president of the government of Prussia, endowing him with broad powers.

Bismarck was convinced that the time was right for Prussia and Austria to compete for dominance on German soil. Sensing danger, Austria took the initiative in convening a conference of the rulers of all the German states with the aim of formulating far-reaching federal reforms under the chairmanship of Franz Joseph and further holding general elections for the national parliament. The latter arrived at the resort in Gastein, where Wilhelm was at that time, but Bismarck, not without a nervous breakdown in each participant in the discussion, nevertheless persuaded King Wilhelm to refuse. Having traditionally gathered again in Frankfurt am Main without Prussia, the leaders of the German states came to the conclusion that a united Germany was unthinkable without the participation of Prussia. Austria's hopes for hegemony in the German space collapsed forever.

In 1864 war broke out with Denmark over the status of Schleswig and Holstein, which were the southern part of Denmark but were dominated by ethnic Germans. The conflict had been smoldering for a long time, but in 1863 it escalated with renewed vigor under pressure from nationalists on both sides. As a result, at the beginning of 1864, Prussian troops occupied Schleswig-Holstein and soon these duchies were divided between Prussia and Austria. However, this was not the end of the conflict, the crisis in relations between Austria and Prussia constantly smoldered, but did not fade away.

In 1866, it became clear that war was inevitable, and both sides began to mobilize their military forces. Prussia was in close alliance with Italy, which put pressure on Austria from the southwest and sought to occupy Venice. The Prussian armies quickly occupied most of the northern German lands and were ready for the main campaign against Austria. The Austrians suffered one defeat after another and were forced to accept a peace treaty imposed by Prussia. Hesse-Kassel, Nassau, Hanover, Schleswig-Holstein and Frankfurt am Main went to the latter.

The war with Austria greatly exhausted the chancellor and undermined his health. Bismarck took a vacation. But he did not have long to rest. From the beginning of 1867, Bismarck worked hard to create the Constitution of the North German Confederation. After some concessions to the Landtag, the Constitution was adopted and the North German Confederation was born. Bismarck became Chancellor two weeks later.

This strengthening of Prussia greatly agitated the rulers of France and Russia. And if relations with Alexander II remained quite warm, then the French were very negative towards the Germans. Passions were fueled by the Spanish succession crisis. One of the contenders for the Spanish throne was Leopold, who belonged to the Brandenburg dynasty of Hohenzollern, and France could not admit him to the important Spanish throne. Patriotic sentiments began to rule in both countries. In addition, the southern German lands were under the strong influence of France, which prevented the much-desired unification of Germany. The war was not long in coming.

The Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871 was devastating for the French, the defeat at Sedan was especially crushing. Emperor Napoleon III was captured, and another revolution took place in Paris.

Meanwhile, Prussia was joined by Alsace and Lorraine, the kingdoms of Saxony, Bavaria and Württemberg - and Bismarck proclaimed the creation of the Second Reich on January 18, 1871, where Wilhelm I assumed the title of Emperor (Kaiser) of Germany. Bismarck himself, on the wave of universal popularity, received the title of prince and a new estate.

Soon after the creation of the Second Reich, Bismarck became convinced that Germany was not in a position to dominate Europe. He failed to realize the idea of ​​uniting all Germans in a single state that had existed for hundreds of years. Austria prevented this, striving for the same, but only on the condition of the dominant role in this state of the Habsburg dynasty.

Fearing French revenge in the future, Bismarck sought rapprochement with Russia. On March 13, 1871, together with representatives of Russia and other countries, he signed the London Convention, which abolished Russia's ban on having a navy in the Black Sea.

In 1872, Bismarck and Gorchakov (with whom Bismarck had a personal relationship, like a talented student with his teacher), organized a meeting in Berlin of three emperors - German, Austrian and Russian. They came to an agreement to jointly confront the revolutionary danger. After that, Bismarck had a conflict with the German ambassador to France, Arnim, who, like Bismarck, belonged to the conservative wing, which alienated the chancellor from the conservative junkers. The result of this confrontation was the arrest of Arnim under the pretext of improper handling of documents.

Bismarck, given the central position of Germany in Europe and the real danger associated with this of being involved in a war on two fronts, created a formula that he followed throughout his reign: "A strong Germany seeks to live peacefully and develop peacefully." To this end, she must have a strong army in order to "not be attacked by anyone who draws her sword."

In the summer of 1875, Bosnia and Herzegovina revolted against Turkish rule. They were supported by Serbia and Montenegro. The Turks crushed the movement they had begun with extreme cruelty. But in 1877 Russia declared war on the Ottoman Porte (as they said then, "that decrepit man of Europe") and prompted Romania to support her. The war ended in victory, and under the terms of the peace concluded in San Stefano in March 1878, a large state of Bulgaria was created, which came out on the coast of the Aegean Sea.

However, under pressure from European states, Russia was forced to lose some of the advantages of its victory. On June 13, 1878, a congress began its work in Berlin, convened to consider the results of the Russian-Turkish war. The Congress was chaired by Bismarck, who on July 13, 1878, signed the Treaty of Berlin with representatives of the great powers, establishing new frontiers in Europe. Then many of the territories that had passed to Russia were returned to Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina were transferred to Austria, the Turkish Sultan, filled with gratitude, gave Cyprus to Britain.

In the Russian press, after this, an acute pan-Slavist campaign against Germany began. The nightmare of the coalition reappeared. On the verge of panic, Bismarck offered Austria to conclude a customs agreement, and when she refused, even a mutual non-aggression pact. Emperor Wilhelm I was frightened by the end of the former pro-Russian orientation of German foreign policy and warned Bismarck that things were moving towards an alliance between tsarist Russia and France, which had become a republic again. At the same time, he pointed out the unreliability of Austria as an ally, which could not deal with its internal problems, as well as the uncertainty of Britain's position.

Bismarck tried to justify his line by pointing out that his initiatives were taken in the interests of Russia as well. On October 7, 1879, he concluded a "Mutual Treaty" (Dual Alliance) with Austria, which pushed Russia into an alliance with France.

This was Bismarck's fatal mistake, destroying the close relations between Russia and Germany that had been established since the German War of Independence. A fierce tariff struggle began between Russia and Germany. Since that time, the General Staffs of both countries began to develop plans for a preventive war against each other.

In 1879, Franco-German relations deteriorated and Russia demanded in an ultimatum from Germany not to start a new war. This testified to the loss of mutual understanding with Russia. Bismarck found himself in a very difficult international situation that threatened isolation. He even resigned, but the Kaiser refused to accept it and sent the chancellor on an indefinite leave of absence that lasted five months.

An agreement was urgently concluded on July 18, 1881, which is a revival of the "Union of the Three Emperors" - Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary. In accordance with it, the participants pledged to remain neutral, even if one of them starts a war with any fourth power. Thus, Bismarck ensured the neutrality of Russia in case of war with France. On the part of Russia, this was the result of a serious political crisis caused by the need to stop the unrestricted hunt for representatives of state power that had begun, which found support from many representatives of the bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia.

In 1885 war broke out between Serbia and Bulgaria, whose allies were respectively Russia and Austria, France began to supply weapons to Russia, and Germany faced the threat of a war on two fronts, which, if this happened, was tantamount to defeat. However, Bismarck still managed on June 18, 1887 to confirm an agreement with Russia, according to which the latter pledged to remain neutral in the event of a Franco-German war.

Bismarck showed understanding of Russian claims to the Bosporus and the Dardanelles in the hope that this would lead to conflict with Britain. Bismarck's supporters saw the move as further proof of Bismarck's diplomatic genius. However, the future showed that this was only a temporary measure in an attempt to avoid an impending international crisis.

Bismarck proceeded from his belief that stability in Europe could be achieved only if England joined the Mutual Treaty. In 1889, he approached Lord Salisbury with a proposal to conclude a military alliance, but the Lord categorically refused. Although Britain was interested in resolving the colonial problem with Germany, she did not want to bind herself with any obligations in central Europe, where the potentially hostile states of France and Russia were located.

Bismarck's hopes that the contradictions between England and Russia would contribute to its rapprochement with the countries of the "Mutual Treaty" were not confirmed ...

As early as 1881, Bismarck declared that "as long as he is Chancellor, there will be no colonial policy in Germany." However, regardless of his will, in 1884-1885 German colonies were established in Southwest and East Africa, in Togo and Cameroon, New Guinea, on the Bismarck archipelago, the Solomon and Marshall Islands. German colonialism brought Germany closer to her eternal rival France, but created tension with England.

In Bismarck's time, only 0.1 percent of exports went to the colonies, although imports from the colonies to Germany accounted for the same share. Bismarck believed that the maintenance of the colonies is very expensive both economically and politically, since the colonies are always a source of unexpected and serious complications. Colonies divert resources and forces from solving pressing internal problems.

On the other hand, the colonies were possible markets and sources of raw materials for the rapidly developing industry. And also allowed to enter the markets in Africa, South America and Oceania.

At certain points, Bismarck showed commitment to the colonial issue, but this was a political move, such as during the election campaign of 1884, when he was accused of lack of patriotism. In addition, this was done in order to reduce the chances of the heir prince Frederick with his leftist views and far-reaching pro-English orientation. In addition, Bismarck understood that the key problem for the country's security was normal relations with England. In 1890, he exchanged Zanzibar from England for the island of Helgoland, which became much later the outpost of the German fleet in the oceans.

At the beginning of 1888, Emperor Wilhelm I died, which did not bode well for the chancellor. The new emperor was Frederick III, terminally ill with throat cancer, who by that time was in a terrible physical and mental state. A few months later he died.

On June 15, 1888, the throne of the empire was taken by the young Wilhelm II, who did not want to be in the shadow of an influential chancellor. The aging Bismarck resigned, which was approved by the Kaiser on March 20, 1890.

Bismarck, 75, received the honorary title of duke and the rank of colonel general of the cavalry. However, he did not retire completely. "You can't demand of me that after forty years in politics, I'll suddenly do nothing at all." He was elected a member of the Reichstag, all of Germany celebrated his 80th birthday, and he took part in the coronation of the All-Russian Emperor Nicholas II.

After Bismarck's resignation, he decided to present his memoirs and publish his memoirs. Bismarck tried not only to influence the formation of his image in the eyes of his descendants, but also continued to interfere in contemporary politics, in particular, he undertook active campaigns in the press. Bismarck's most often attacked was his successor, Caprivi. Indirectly, he criticized the emperor, whom he could not forgive his resignation.


Otto von Bismarck. Photo from 1890


The press campaign was successful. Public opinion leaned in favor of Bismarck, especially after Wilhelm II began to openly attack him. The authority of the new Reich Chancellor, Caprivi, was especially hard hit when he tried to prevent Bismarck from meeting with the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph. The trip to Vienna turned into a triumph for Bismarck, who declared that he had no obligation to the German authorities: "all bridges have been burned."

Wilhelm II was forced to agree to reconciliation. Several meetings with Bismarck in 1894 went well, but did not lead to a real détente in relations.

The death of his wife in 1894 was a severe blow to Bismarck. In 1898, the health of the ex-chancellor deteriorated sharply, and on July 30 he died at the age of 84.

* * *

The following excerpt from the book Bismarck Otto fon. The world is on the brink of war. What awaits Russia and Europe (Otto Bismarck) provided by our book partner -

Otto Bismarck is one of the most famous politicians of the 19th century. He had a significant impact on political life in Europe, developed a security system. He played a key role in the unification of the German peoples into a single national state. He was awarded many prizes and titles. Subsequently, historians and politicians will evaluate differently who created

The biography of the chancellor is still between representatives of various political movements. In this article, we will get to know her better.

Otto von Bismarck: a short biography. Childhood

Otto was born on April 1, 1815 in Pomerania. His family members were cadets. These are the descendants of medieval knights who received land for serving the king. The Bismarcks had a small estate and held various military and civil positions in the Prussian nomenklatura. By the standards of the German nobility of the 19th century, the family had rather modest resources.

Young Otto was sent to the Plaman school, where the students were tempered with hard physical exercises. The mother was an ardent Catholic and wanted her son to be brought up in strict norms of conservatism. By adolescence, Otto transferred to the gymnasium. There he did not prove himself to be a diligent student. He could not boast of success in his studies. But at the same time he read a lot and was interested in politics and history. He studied the features of the political structure of Russia and France. I even learned French. At the age of 15, Bismarck decides to commit himself to politics. But the mother, who was the head of the family, insists on studying in Göttingen. Law and jurisprudence were chosen as the direction. Young Otto was to become a Prussian diplomat.

Bismarck's behavior in Hannover, where he was trained, is legendary. He did not want to study law, so he preferred a wild life to learning. Like all the elite youth, he frequented entertainment venues and made many friends among the nobles. It was at this time that the hot-tempered nature of the future chancellor manifested itself. He often gets into skirmishes and disputes, which he prefers to resolve by a duel. According to the memoirs of university friends, in just a few years of his stay in Göttingen, Otto participated in 27 duels. As a lifelong memory of a turbulent youth, he had a scar on his cheek after one of these competitions.

Leaving the University

A luxurious life side by side with the children of aristocrats and politicians was beyond the means of the relatively modest Bismarck family. And the constant participation in troubles caused problems with the law and the leadership of the university. So, without receiving a diploma, Otto left for Berlin, where he entered another university. which he graduated in a year. After that, he decided to follow his mother's advice and become a diplomat. Each figure at that time was personally approved by the Minister of Foreign Affairs. After studying the Bismarck case and learning about his problems with the law in Hanover, he denied the young graduate a job.

After the collapse of hopes to become a diplomat, Otto works in Anchen, where he deals with small organizational issues. According to the memoirs of Bismarck himself, the work did not require significant efforts from him, and he could devote himself to self-development and recreation. But even in a new place, the future chancellor has problems with the law, so a few years later he enlists in the army. The military career did not last long. A year later, Bismarck's mother dies, and he is forced to return to Pomerania, where their family estate is located.

In Pomerania, Otto faces a number of difficulties. This is a real test for him. Managing a large estate requires a lot of effort. So Bismarck has to give up his student habits. Thanks to successful work, he significantly raises the status of the estate and increases his income. From a serene young man, he turns into a respected cadet. Nevertheless, the quick-tempered character continues to remind of itself. Neighbors nicknamed Otto "mad".

A few years later, Bismarck's sister Malvina arrives from Berlin. He is very close to her because of their common interests and outlook on life. Around the same time, he becomes an ardent Lutheran and reads the Bible every day. The future Chancellor is engaged to Johanna Puttkamer.

The beginning of the political path

In the 40s of the 19th century, a tough struggle for power between liberals and conservatives began in Prussia. To relieve tension, Kaiser Friedrich Wilhelm convenes the Landtag. Elections are held in local administrations. Otto decides to go into politics and without much effort becomes a deputy. From the first days in the Landtag, Bismarck gained fame. Newspapers write about him as "a rabid junker from Pomerania". He's pretty harsh on liberals. Composes whole articles of devastating criticism of Georg Fincke.

His speeches are quite expressive and inspiring, so that Bismarck quickly becomes a significant figure in the camp of conservatives.

Opposition to liberals

At this time, a serious crisis is brewing in the country. A series of revolutions is taking place in neighboring states. The liberals inspired by it are actively engaged in propaganda among the working and poor German population. There are frequent strikes and strikes. Against this background, food prices are constantly rising, unemployment is growing. As a result, a social crisis leads to a revolution. It was organized by the patriots together with the liberals, demanding from the king the adoption of a new Constitution and the unification of all German lands into one national state. Bismarck was very frightened of this revolution, he sends a letter to the king asking him to entrust him with an army campaign against Berlin. But Friedrich makes concessions and partially agrees with the demand of the rebels. As a result, bloodshed was avoided, and the reforms were not as radical as in France or Austria.

In response to the victory of the liberals, a camarilla is created - an organization of conservative reactionaries. Bismarck immediately enters into it and conducts active propaganda through. By agreement with the king, a military coup takes place in 1848, and the rightists regain their lost positions. But Frederick is in no hurry to empower his new allies, and Bismarck is effectively removed from power.

Conflict with Austria

At this time, the German lands were greatly fragmented into large and small principalities, which in one way or another depended on Austria and Prussia. These two states waged a constant struggle for the right to be considered the unifying center of the German nation. By the end of the 40s, there was a serious conflict over the Principality of Erfurt. Relations deteriorated sharply, rumors spread about a possible mobilization. Bismarck takes an active part in resolving the conflict, and he manages to insist on the signing of agreements with Austria in Olmück, since, in his opinion, Prussia was unable to resolve the conflict by military means.

Bismarck believes that it is necessary to begin a long preparation for the destruction of Austrian dominance in the so-called German space.

For this, according to Otto, it is necessary to conclude an alliance with France and Russia. Therefore, with the beginning of the Crimean War, he actively campaigns not to enter into a conflict on the side of Austria. His efforts are bearing fruit: mobilization is not carried out, and the German states remain neutral. The king sees a future in the plans of the "mad junker" and sends him as an ambassador to France. After negotiations with Napoleon III, Bismarck is suddenly recalled from Paris and sent to Russia.

Otto in Russia

Contemporaries claim that the formation of the personality of the Iron Chancellor was greatly influenced by his stay in Russia, Otto Bismarck himself wrote about this. The biography of any diplomat includes a period of mastery. That is what Otto devoted himself to in St. Petersburg. In the capital, he spends a lot of time with Gorchakov, who was considered one of the most prominent diplomats of his time. Bismarck was impressed by the Russian state and traditions. He liked the policy pursued by the emperor, so he carefully studied Russian history. I even started learning Russian. A few years later he could already speak it fluently. "Language gives me the opportunity to understand the very way of thinking and logic of Russians," wrote Otto von Bismarck. The biography of the "mad" student and cadet brought notoriety to the diplomat and interfered with successful activities in many countries, but not in Russia. This is another reason why Otto liked our country.

In it, he saw an example for the development of the German state, since the Russians managed to unite the lands with an ethnically identical population, which was an old dream of the Germans. In addition to diplomatic contacts, Bismarck makes many personal connections.

But Bismarck's quotes about Russia cannot be called flattering: "Never trust Russians, for Russians don't even trust themselves"; "Russia is dangerous because of the meagerness of its needs."

Prime Minister

Gorchakov taught Otto the basics of an aggressive foreign policy, which was very necessary for Prussia. After the death of the king, the "mad junker" is sent to Paris as a diplomat. Before him is a serious task to prevent the restoration of the long-standing alliance of France and England. The new government in Paris, created after another revolution, was negative about the ardent conservative from Prussia.

But Bismarck managed to convince the French of the need for mutual cooperation with the Russian Empire and the German lands. The ambassador selected only trusted people for his team. Assistants selected candidates, then they were considered by Otto Bismarck himself. A short biography of the applicants was compiled by the secret police of the king.

Successful work in establishing international relations allowed Bismarck to become Prime Minister of Prussia. In this position, he won the true love of the people. Otto von Bismarck graced the front pages of German newspapers weekly. Politician quotes became popular far abroad. Such fame in the press is due to the Prime Minister's love for populist statements. For example, the words: "The great questions of the time are not decided by speeches and resolutions of the majority, but by iron and blood!" are still used on a par with similar statements of the rulers of ancient Rome. One of the most famous sayings of Otto von Bismarck: "Stupidity is a gift of God, but it should not be abused."

Territorial expansion of Prussia

Prussia has long set itself the goal of uniting all German lands into one state. For this, training was carried out not only in the foreign policy aspect, but also in the field of propaganda. The main rival in leadership and patronage over the German world was Austria. In 1866, relations with Denmark sharply escalated. Part of the kingdom was occupied by ethnic Germans. Under pressure from the nationalist part of the public, they began to demand the right to self-determination. At this time, Chancellor Otto Bismarck secured the full support of the king and received extended rights. The war with Denmark began. The Prussian troops occupied the territory of Holstein without any problems and divided it with Austria.

Because of these lands, a new conflict arose with a neighbor. The Habsburgs, who sat in Austria, were losing their positions in Europe after a series of revolutions and upheavals that overthrew the representatives of the dynasty in other countries. For 2 years after the Danish war, hostility between Austria and Prussia grew in the first trade blockades and political pressure began. But it soon became clear that a direct military clash could not be avoided. Both countries began to mobilize the population. Otto von Bismarck played a key role in the conflict. Briefly setting out his goals to the king, he immediately went to Italy to enlist her support. The Italians themselves also had claims to Austria, seeking to take possession of Venice. In 1866 the war began. The Prussian troops managed to quickly seize part of the territories and force the Habsburgs to sign a peace treaty on favorable terms.

Consolidation of lands

Now all the ways for the unification of the German lands were open. Prussia headed for the creation of a constitution for which Otto von Bismarck himself wrote. The chancellor's quotes about the unity of the German people gained popularity in the north of France. The growing influence of Prussia greatly worried the French. The Russian Empire also began to fearfully wait for what Otto von Bismarck would do, whose brief biography is described in the article. The history of Russian-Prussian relations during the reign of the Iron Chancellor is very revealing. The politician managed to assure Alexander II of his intention to cooperate with the Empire in the future.

But the French were not convinced of the same. As a result, another war began. A few years earlier, an army reform had been carried out in Prussia, as a result of which a regular army was created.

Military spending also increased. Thanks to this and the successful actions of the German generals, France suffered a number of major defeats. Napoleon III was captured. Paris was forced to make an agreement, losing a number of territories.

On the wave of triumph, the Second Reich is proclaimed, Wilhelm becomes emperor, and Otto Bismarck is his confidant. Quotes from Roman generals at the coronation gave the chancellor another nickname - "triumphant", since then he was often depicted on a Roman chariot and with a wreath on his head.

Heritage

Constant wars and internal political squabbles seriously crippled the health of the politician. He went on vacation several times, but was forced to return due to a new crisis. Even after 65 years, he continued to take an active part in all the political processes of the country. Not a single meeting of the Landtag took place if Otto von Bismarck was not present. Interesting facts about the life of the chancellor are described below.

For 40 years in politics, he achieved tremendous success. Prussia expanded its territories and was able to seize superiority in the German space. Contacts were established with the Russian Empire and France. All these achievements would not have been possible without such a figure as Otto Bismarck. The photo of the chancellor in profile and in a combat helmet has become a kind of symbol of his uncompromisingly tough foreign and domestic policy.

Disputes around this person are still ongoing. But in Germany, everyone knows who Otto von Bismarck was - the iron chancellor. Why he was so nicknamed, there is no consensus. Either because of his quick temper, or because of his ruthlessness towards enemies. One way or another, he had a huge impact on world politics.

  • Bismarck began his morning with exercise and prayer.
  • During his stay in Russia, Otto learned to speak Russian.
  • In St. Petersburg, Bismarck was invited to participate in royal fun. This is bear hunting in the woods. The German even managed to kill several animals. But during the next sortie, the detachment got lost, and the diplomat received severe frostbite on his legs. Doctors predicted amputation, but nothing happened.
  • As a young man, Bismarck was an avid duelist. He took part in 27 duels and received a scar on his face in one of them.
  • Otto von Bismarck was once asked how he chose his profession. He replied: "I was destined by nature to become a diplomat: I was born on the first of April."

Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck is the most important German statesman and politician of the 19th century. His service had an important impact on the course of European history. He is considered the founder of the German Empire. For almost three decades he shaped Germany: from 1862 to 1873 as Prime Minister of Prussia, and from 1871 to 1890 as the first Chancellor of Germany.

Bismarck family

Otto was born on April 1, 1815 at the Schönhausen estate, on the outskirts of Brandenburg, north of Magdeburg, which was in the Prussian province of Saxony. His family, starting from the 14th century, belonged to the nobility, and many ancestors held high government posts in the kingdom of Prussia. Otto always remembered his father with love, considering him a modest person. In his youth, Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand served in the army and was demobilized with the rank of captain of the cavalry (captain). His mother, Louise Wilhelmina von Bismarck, née Mencken, belonged to the middle class, was strongly influenced by her father, was quite rational and had a strong character. Louise focused on raising her sons, but Bismarck, in his memoirs of childhood, did not describe the special tenderness that traditionally comes from mothers.

The marriage produced six children, three of his siblings died in childhood. They lived a relatively long life: an older brother, born in 1810, Otto himself, who was born fourth, and a sister born in 1827. A year after the birth, the family moved to the Prussian province of Pomerania, the town of Konarzewo, where the first years of the childhood of the future chancellor passed. Beloved sister Malvina and brother Bernard were born here. Otto's father inherited the Pomeranian estates from his cousin in 1816 and moved to Konarzewo. At that time, the manor was a modest building with a brick foundation and wooden walls. Information about the house has been preserved thanks to the drawings of the elder brother, from which one can clearly see a simple two-story building with two short one-story wings on either side of the main entrance.

Childhood and youth

At the age of 7, Otto was sent to an elite private boarding school in , then he continued his education at the Graue Kloster gymnasium. At the age of seventeen, on May 10, 1832, he entered the law faculty of the University of Göttingen, where he spent just over a year. He took a leading place in the public life of students. From November 1833 he continued his studies at the University of Berlin. Education allowed him to engage in diplomacy, but at first he devoted several months to purely administrative work, after which he was transferred to the judicial field in the court of appeal. The young man did not work long in the public service, since it seemed unthinkable and routine for him to observe strict discipline. He worked in 1836 as a government clerk in Aachen, and the following year in Potsdam. This is followed by a year of service as a volunteer in the Greifswald Rifle Battalion Guards. In 1839, together with his brother, he took over the management of the family estates in Pomerania after the death of his mother.

He returned to Konarzevo at the age of 24. In 1846, he first leased the estate, and then sold the property inherited from his father to his nephew Philip in 1868. The property remained with the von Bismarck family until 1945. The last owners were the brothers Klaus and Philipp, sons of Gottfried von Bismarck.

In 1844, after his sister's marriage, he went to live with his father in Schönhausen. As a passionate hunter and duelist, he gains a reputation as a "savage".

Carier start

After the death of his father, Otto and his brother take an active part in the life of the district. In 1846, he began working in an office in charge of the work of the dikes, which served as protection against flooding of the regions located on the Elbe. During these years he traveled extensively in England, France and Switzerland. The views inherited from his mother, his own broad outlook and a critical attitude towards everything, disposed him to free views with an extreme right bias. He quite original and actively defended the rights of the king and the Christian monarchy in the fight against liberalism. After the start of the revolution, Otto offered to bring peasants from Schönhausen to Berlin to protect the king from the revolutionary movement. He did not take part in the meetings, but was actively involved in the formation of the Conservative Party alliance and was one of the founders of the Kreuz-Zeitung, which has since become the newspaper of the monarchist party in Prussia. In the parliament elected at the beginning of 1849, he became one of the sharpest speakers from among the representatives of the young nobility. He figured prominently in discussions about the new Prussian constitution, always defending the power of the king. His speeches were distinguished by a unique manner of debating, combined with originality. Otto understood that the party disputes were only power struggles between revolutionary forces and that no compromise was possible between these principles. A clear position on the foreign policy of the Prussian government was also known, in which he actively opposed plans to create an alliance that forced them to obey a single parliament. In 1850 he held a seat in the parliament of Erfurt, where he vehemently opposed the constitution created by the parliament, foreseeing that such a policy of the government would lead to a struggle against Austria, in which Prussia would be the loser. This position of Bismarck prompted the king in 1851 to appoint him first as the chief Prussian representative, and then as a minister in the Bundestag in Frankfurt am Main. This was a rather bold appointment, since Bismarck had no experience in diplomatic work.

Here he is trying to achieve equal rights for Prussia with Austria, lobbying for the recognition of the Bundestag and is a supporter of small German associations, without Austrian participation. During the eight years he spent in Frankfurt, he became an excellent understanding of politics, thanks to which he became an indispensable diplomat. However, the period he spent in Frankfurt was accompanied by important changes in political views. In June 1863, Bismarck published regulations governing freedom of the press and the crown prince publicly repudiated his father's ministerial policies.

Bismarck in the Russian Empire

During the Crimean War, he advocated an alliance with Russia. Bismarck was appointed Prussian ambassador to St. Petersburg, where he stayed from 1859 to 1862. Here he studied the experience of Russian diplomacy. By his own admission, the head of the Russian Foreign Ministry, Gorchakov, is a great connoisseur of the art of diplomacy. During his time in Russia, Bismarck not only learned the language, but also developed a relationship with Alexander II and with the Empress Dowager, a Prussian princess.

During the first two years he had little influence on the Prussian government: the liberal ministers did not trust his opinion, and the regent was mortified by Bismarck's willingness to form an alliance with the Italians. The rift between King Wilhelm and the Liberal Party opened the way for Otto to power. Albrecht von Roon, who was appointed Minister of War in 1861, was an old friend of his, and thanks to him Bismarck was able to follow the state of affairs in Berlin. When a crisis arose in 1862 due to the refusal of parliament to vote on the allocation of funds necessary for the reorganization of the army, he was called to Berlin. The king still could not make up his mind to increase the role of Bismarck, but he clearly understood that Otto was the only person who had the courage and ability to fight against parliament.

After the death of Friedrich Wilhelm IV, his place on the throne was taken by regent Wilhelm I Friedrich Ludwig. When Bismarck left his post in the Russian Empire in 1862, the tsar offered him a position in the Russian service, but Bismarck refused.

In June 1862 he was appointed ambassador to Paris under Napoleon III. He studies in detail the school of French Bonapartism. In September, the king, on the advice of Roon, summoned Bismarck to Berlin and appointed him prime minister and foreign minister.

new field

Bismarck's main duty as minister was to support the king in the reorganization of the army. The dissatisfaction caused by his appointment was serious. His reputation as a peremptory ultra-conservative, reinforced by his first speech about the belief that the German question could not be settled only by speeches and parliamentary decisions, but only by blood and iron, increased the fears of the opposition. There can be no doubt about his determination to bring to an end the long struggle for the supremacy of the House of Hohenzollern Elector dynasty over the Habsburgs. However, two unforeseen events completely changed the situation in Europe and forced the confrontation to be postponed for three years. The first was an outbreak of rebellion in Poland. Bismarck, heir to the old Prussian traditions, mindful of the contribution of the Poles to the greatness of Prussia, offered his help to the tsar. By this he placed himself in opposition to Western Europe. As a political dividend, there was the gratitude of the tsar and the support of Russia. Even more serious were the difficulties that arose in Denmark. Bismarck was again forced to confront national sentiment.

German unification

Through the efforts of Bismarck's political will, the North German Confederation was founded by 1867.

The North German Confederation included:

  • Kingdom of Prussia,
  • Kingdom of Saxony,
  • Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
  • Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz,
  • Grand Duchy of Oldenburg
  • Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach,
  • Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg,
  • Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,
  • Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen,
  • Duchy of Brunswick,
  • Duchy of Anhalt,
  • Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,
  • Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,
  • Principality of Reiss-Greutz,
  • Principality of Reiss-Gera,
  • Principality of Lippe,
  • Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe,
  • Principality of Waldeck,
  • Cities: , and .

Bismarck founded the union, introduced the direct suffrage of the Reichstag and the exclusive responsibility of the federal chancellor. He himself assumed the office of chancellor on July 14, 1867. As chancellor, he controlled the foreign policy of the country and was responsible for all the internal politics of the empire, and his influence was traced in every state department.

Fighting the Roman Catholic Church

After the unification of the country, the government faced the question of the unification of faith more than ever. The core of the country, being purely Protestant, faced religious opposition from adherents of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1873, Bismarck was not only heavily criticized, but also wounded by an aggressive believer. This was not the first attempt. In 1866, shortly before the start of the war, he was attacked by Cohen, a native of Württemberg, who thus wanted to save Germany from fratricidal war.

The Catholic Center Party unites, attracting the nobility. However, the Chancellor signs the May Laws, taking advantage of the numerical superiority of the national Liberal Party. Another fanatic, apprentice Franz Kuhlmann, on July 13, 1874, makes another attack on the authorities. Long and hard work affects the health of a politician. Bismarck resigned several times. After his retirement, he lived in Friedrichsruh.

Chancellor's personal life

In 1844, in Konarzewo, Otto met the Prussian noblewoman Joanna von Puttkamer. On July 28, 1847, their wedding took place in a parish church near Reinfeld. Undemanding and deeply religious, Joanna was a loyal companion who provided significant support throughout her husband's career. Despite the heavy loss of his first lover and the intrigue with the wife of the Russian ambassador, Orlova, his marriage turned out to be happy. The couple had three children: Mary in 1848, Herbert in 1849 and William in 1852.

Joanna died on November 27, 1894 at the Bismarck estate at the age of 70. The husband built a chapel in which she was buried. Later, her remains were moved to the Bismarck Mausoleum in Friedrichsruh.

Last years

In 1871, the emperor gave him part of the possessions of the Duchy of Lauenburg. By his seventieth birthday, he was given a large amount of money, part of which went to buy out the estate of his ancestors in Schönhausen, part to buy an estate in Pomerania, which from now on he used as a country residence, and the rest of the funds were given to create a fund to help schoolchildren.

In retirement, the emperor granted him the title of Duke of Lauenburg, but he never used this title. Bismarck spent his last years not far from. He fiercely criticized the government, sometimes in conversation, sometimes from the pages of Hamburg publications. His eightieth birthday in 1895 was celebrated on a grand scale. He died in Friedrichsruh on 31 July 1898.

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