Icons of Russia: Crucifixion. From the history of the iconography of the crucifixion

Wood, pavolok, gesso, tempera, 25 * 30 cm

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Size 17 * 21 cm 25 * 30 cm other Gilding no halos completely

The icon “The Crucifixion of Jesus Christ” refers us to the gospel story of the execution of Christ by crucifixion. In the first chapter of the Gospel of Matthew, an angel appears to Joseph and says: “And you shall call His name Jesus, for He will save His people from their sins.” Saving people from sin is the purpose of the Sacrifice that the Lord made.

In the center of the icon is a flat brown cross with the crucified Christ. Jesus' eyes are open, symbolizing his divine immortality. Angels hover above the cross, and on either side of it are the mourning Mary and John in dark cloaks.

The hill at the base of the cross with a human skull inside it marks the location of the action - Mount Golgotha. This is a low hill outside the city where public executions were carried out. According to legend, Adam was buried in this hill. Golgotha ​​means skull in Aramaic. Christ crucified on Calvary symbolizes the victory over the sins of Adam and the death that resulted from original sin.

The Greek letters inside the halo of Jesus Christ, WON, mean “who am,” or “which exists.” Jehovah is one of the names of God by which he called himself when he called upon Moses to lead the people of Israel out of Egypt.

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One of the main events of the Passion of Christ is the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, which ended the earthly life of the Savior. Execution by crucifixion itself was the oldest method of dealing with the most dangerous criminals who were not Roman citizens. Jesus Christ himself was officially executed for an attempt on the state structure of the Roman Empire - He called for refusing to pay taxes to Rome, declared himself the King of the Jews and the Son of God. The crucifixion itself was a painful execution - some condemned could hang on the cross for a whole week until they died from suffocation, dehydration or blood loss. Basically, of course, the crucified died from asphyxia (suffocation): their outstretched arms fixed with nails did not allow the abdominal muscles and diaphragm to rest, causing pulmonary edema. To speed up the process, most of those condemned to crucifixion had their shins broken, thereby causing extremely rapid fatigue of these muscles.

The icon of the Crucifixion of Christ shows: the cross on which the Savior was executed was of an unusual shape. Usually, ordinary piles, T-shaped pillars or oblique crosses were used for execution (the Apostle Andrew the First-Called was crucified on a cross of this type, for which this form of the cross received the name “St. Andrew’s”). The Savior’s cross was shaped like a bird flying upward, speaking of His imminent Ascension.

Present at the Crucifixion of Christ were: Our Lady the Virgin Mary. Apostle John the Theologian, myrrh-bearing women: Mary Magdalene, Mary of Cleopas; two thieves crucified at the left and right hand of Christ, Roman soldiers, onlookers from the crowd and the high priests who mocked Jesus. In the image of the Crucifixion of Christ, John the Theologian and the Virgin Mary are most often depicted standing before Him - the crucified Jesus addressed them from the cross: He ordered the young apostle to take care of the Mother of God as his mother, and the Mother of God to accept Christ’s disciple as a son. Until the Dormition of the Mother of God, John honored Mary as his mother and looked after her. Sometimes the martyr's cross of Jesus is depicted between two other crucifixes, on which two criminals are crucified: a prudent thief and an insane thief. The mad robber reviled Christ, and mockingly asked Him: “Why don’t you, Messiah, save yourself and us?” The prudent robber reasoned with his comrade, saying to him: “We are condemned for our deed, but He suffers innocently!” And, turning to Christ, he said: “Remember me, Lord, when you find yourself in Your Kingdom!” Jesus answered the wise thief: “Truly, truly, I say to you, you will be with Me in Paradise!” In the images of the Crucifixion of Christ, where there are two robbers, guess which of them is crazy. and who is prudent is quite simple. The helplessly bowed head of Jesus points in the direction where the prudent thief is. In addition, in the Orthodox iconographic tradition, the raised lower crossbar of the Savior’s cross points to the prudent thief, hinting that the Kingdom of Heaven awaited this repentant man, and hell awaited the blasphemer of Christ.

On most icons of the Crucifixion of the Savior, the martyr's cross of Christ stands on the top of the mountain, and a human skull is visible under the mountain. Jesus Christ was crucified on Mount Golgotha ​​- according to legend, it was under this mountain that Noah’s eldest son Shem buried the skull and two bones of Adam, the first man on Earth. The Savior’s blood from the wounds of His body, falling to the ground, seeping through the soil and stones of Golgotha, will wash the bones and skull of Adam, thereby washing away the original sin that lay on humanity. Above the head of Jesus there is a sign “I.N.C.I” - “Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews.” It is believed that the inscription on this table was made by Pontius Pilate himself, who overcame the opposition of the Jewish high priests and scribes, who believed that with this inscription the Roman prefect of Judea would show unprecedented honor to the executed man. Sometimes, instead of “I.N.Ts.I”, another inscription is depicted on the tablet - “King of Glory” or “King of Peace” - this is typical for the works of Slavic icon painters.

Sometimes there is an opinion that Jesus Christ died from a spear that pierced His chest. But the testimony of the Evangelist John the Theologian says the opposite: the Savior died on the cross, before his death he drank vinegar, which was brought to him on a sponge by the mocking Roman soldiers. The two robbers who were executed along with Christ had their legs broken to quickly kill them. And the centurion of the Roman soldiers Longinus pierced the body of the dead Jesus with his spear to make sure of His death, leaving the bones of the Savior intact, which confirmed the ancient prophecy mentioned in the Psalter: "Not one of His bones will be broken!". The body of Jesus Christ was taken down from the cross by Joseph of Arimathea, a noble member of the Holy Sanhedrin who secretly professed Christianity. The repentant centurion Longinus soon converted to Christianity and was later executed for preaching sermons glorifying Christ. Saint Longinus was canonized as a martyr.

Objects that in one way or another participated in the process of the Crucifixion of Christ became sacred Christian relics, called Instruments of the Passion of Christ. These include:

The cross on which Christ was crucified The nails with which he was nailed to the cross The pincers that were used to pull out those nails The tablet “I.N.C.I” The crown of thorns The Spear of Longinus The bowl of vinegar and the sponge with which the soldiers gave water to the crucified Jesus Ladder, with the help of which Joseph of Arimathea removed His body from the cross. The clothes of Christ and the dice of the soldiers who divided His clothes among themselves.

Each time, making the sign of the cross, we draw an image of the cross in the air, with reverence and inexpressible gratitude remembering the voluntary feat of Jesus Christ, who with his earthly death atoned for the original sin of mankind and gave people hope for salvation.

People pray to the icon of the Crucifixion of Christ for forgiveness of sins; they turn to it with repentance.

The ability to read and write used to be a much greater privilege than it is now. Therefore, images were used to disseminate and explain certain religious ideas. Therefore, the crucifixion icon was often called the depicted Gospel or the Gospel for the illiterate. Indeed, in this image believers could see some basic details and symbols of faith. The composition was always rich and gave people the opportunity to think about Christianity, and Christians to be more inspired and inspired by faith.

The plot and meaning of the icon of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ

The background of the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ icon is often dark. Some may associate this detail with a symbolic display of the darkness of the event, however, in reality, genuine events are captured here. Indeed, according to evidence, when Christ was crucified, the daylight really darkened - such was the sign and it is this fact that is reflected in the image.

Also, the background can be diametrically opposite, solemn - golden. Although the crucifixion is a sad fact (even people present in addition to Christ in the image are most often depicted with gestures of grief and mourning faces), it is this redemptive feat that gives hope to all humanity. Therefore, this event is also ultimately joyful, especially for believers.

The canonical icon of the crucifixion of Christ, as a rule, includes many additional figures in addition to the main one. Particularly characteristic is the use of additional characters and details for works created before the period of iconoclasm. Shown:

• The Mother of God is most often on the right side of the Savior;
• John the Theologian - one of the 12 apostles and 4 evangelists, on the other side of the cross;
• two robbers crucified side by side on each side, Rach, who believed right on the crucifixion, became the first person saved by Christ and ascended to heaven;
• three Roman soldiers are located in front from below, as if under a cross.

The figures of robbers and warriors are often depicted smaller than others in size. This emphasizes the hierarchy of the characters present, determining which of them is of greater importance.

Also, the difference in size to some extent sets the peculiar dynamics of the narrative. Indeed, since ancient times, an icon, including the crucifixion of the Lord, has been not just an image of some event, but also a symbol of faith, a brief statement of the main details of the teaching. So the icon could become a kind of alternative to the Gospel, which is why we talk about storytelling through the image.

On the top of the icon “The Crucifixion of Jesus Christ” there are two rocks on the sides. They may be somewhat similar to the rocks that are visible on many icons of the Baptism of the Lord, where they symbolically indicate spiritual movement, ascent, but here the rocks perform a different function. We are talking about a sign during the period of the death of Christ - an earthquake, which manifested itself precisely when the Savior was crucified.

Let's pay attention to the upper part, where the angels with outstretched arms are located. They express sorrow, but also the presence of heavenly forces emphasizes the significance of this event and transfers the crucifixion of Christ from a simple earthly matter to a phenomenon of a higher order.

Continuing the theme of the significance of the crucifixion event, we should note the icon, where only the cross and the main details remain. In simpler images, there are no secondary characters; as a rule, only John the Evangelist and the Virgin Mary remain. The background color is gold, which emphasizes the solemnity of the event.

After all, we are not talking about some crucified person, but about the will of the Lord, which was ultimately accomplished in the act of crucifixion. Thus, the truth that the Almighty has established is embodied on earth.

Hence the solemnity of the event, and the solemnity of the icon of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, which also leads to the subsequent joy - the Resurrection of Christ, after which the opportunity to gain the Kingdom of Heaven opens for every believer.

How does the Crucifixion of Christ icon help?

People who feel their own sins most often turn to this icon with prayers. If you have realized your own guilt in something and want to repent, then prayer in front of this image can not only help, but also guide you on the right path and strengthen you in faith.

Prayer to the Lord Jesus crucified

Lord Jesus Christ, Son of the living God, Creator of heaven and earth, Savior of the world, here I am, unworthy and most sinful of all, humbly bowing the knee of my heart before the glory of Thy Majesty, I sing praise to the cross and Thy suffering, and thanksgiving to Thee, the King of all and God, I offer, as you have deigned to bear all the labors and all kinds of troubles, misfortunes and torments, like a man, so that you will all be our compassionate Helper and Savior in all our sorrows, needs and embitterments. We know, Omnipotent Master, that all this was not needed by You, but for the sake of human salvation, that You might redeem us all from the cruel work of the enemy, You endured the Cross and suffering. That I will repay Thee, O lover of mankind, for all that Thou hast suffered for me for the sake of a sinner; We don’t know, for soul and body and all that is good are from You, and all that is mine is Yours, and I am Yours. Just in Your innumerable Lord, I trust in Your mercy, I sing Your ineffable long-suffering, I magnify Your inscrutable exhaustion, I glorify Your immeasurable mercy, I worship Your most pure Passion and, lovingly kissing Your wounds, I cry out: have mercy on me, a sinner, and make me not barren in I receive Your Holy Cross, so that by sharing Your sufferings here with faith, I may be worthy to see the glory of Your Kingdom in heaven! Amen.

Prayer to the Holy Cross

Save, O Lord, Thy people, and bless Thy inheritance, granting victories to Orthodox Christians against the opposition, and preserving Thy residence through Thy Cross.

Troparion to the Lord Jesus Christ crucified

Tone 1 Save Thy people, O Lord, and bless Thy inheritance, granting victories against resistance and preserving Thy life through Thy Cross.

Until recently, it was believed that the image of the Crucifixion did not appear in Christian art as long as the execution of the cross existed. And only supposedly from the 5th century, when civilized humanity finally left it in the past and memories of it became legend, then the first images of the suffering of Christ appear, and at first very conditional, as if in hints, and not in the form of real scenes. However, not so long ago, in the town of Iruña Veleya in northern Spain, a clay fragment depicting the Crucifixion, presumably dating back to the 3rd century AD, was discovered. . And soon an even more amazing discovery followed - in the Holy Land, which the press hastened to report: on the Mount of Olives, an archaeological expedition discovered an allegedly early Christian grave, in which a cross was found. These discoveries, however, have not yet received reliable estimates from experts, but even before them, some researchers believed that the first images of the Crucifixion date back to the 1st–3rd centuries.

The most famous monuments that have reached us date back only to the 5th century. Let us name two of them here: the Crucifixion on a door relief in the Church of Santa Sabina in Rome and on a tablet in the British Museum. The image on the British avoria is expressive, representing a relief of the same time, with an already developed iconographic program of the Crucifixion. On the Roman door there are simply three human figures with arms outstretched crosswise, one of which, the central one, is larger than the other two. Therefore, Yu.G.’s statement is completely unfounded. Bobrova: “The image of the historical crucifixion with the figure of Christ began to spread only after the decisions of the Ecumenical Council of 692, which abolished the symbolic replacements of the image of Christ.” The monuments themselves refute such opinions.

Thus, the Monk Anastasius, abbot of Mount Sinai, (c. 600–695), wrote a polemical work against the Monophysites, “Guide,” illustrating it with an image of the Crucifixion. At the same time, Anastasius was the first to use the Greek crucifix, that is, an eight-pointed cross.

Is it possible to agree with V.N. Toporov is that the cross is a sign of death, funeral (why is it supposedly installed on the grave as a hieroglyph of death, as a sign of crossing out, abolition, cancellation, etc.)? In any case, the “Handbook for a Clergyman” says the opposite: “The cross over the grave of an Orthodox Christian is a silent preacher of blessed immortality and resurrection; planted in the ground and rising to heaven, it signifies the faith of Christians that the body of the deceased is here in the earth, and the soul is in heaven, that under the cross is hidden a seed that will grow for eternal life in the Kingdom of God.” Apparently, secular people perceive the cross as a sign of death due to the fact that a skull began to be depicted inside the Calvary Cave from the 9th century - according to N.V. Pokrovsky, a symbol of death, and not Adam’s head, as G.D. thought. Filimonov. “A cross with Adam’s head at the foot would lose all meaning of the cross as a symbol of victory and salvation and would receive a completely opposite meaning,” writes N.V. Pokrovsky. - Indeed, what significance could the head of the saved Adam, trampled on by the cross - a symbol of salvation - have? It is clear that the later symbol of death, having replaced the oldest symbol under the influence of a softening of concepts, received, under the same influence, an interpretation of Adam’s head that was completely alien to its nature.” However, Filimonov’s opinion is confirmed in the writings of early Christian authors. The tradition of Adam's burial on Golgotha ​​has been known since the 3rd century AD. Origen, for example, saw Divine Providence in the coincidence of the burial places of the progenitor and the crucifixion of the Lord. The main reason for this conclusion for the famous Alexandrian theologian were the words of the Apostle Paul: “As death is through man, so through man is the resurrection of the dead. Just as in Adam all die, so in Christ all will live” (1 Cor. 15: 21–22). Tertullian thought similarly. Saint Basil the Great, explaining the term “place of the forehead,” told us about an unwritten legend according to which Adam’s skull was buried on Golgotha. Many apocrypha also tell about the same thing, with the only difference being that according to some of them, Adam was buried on Calvary by angels, and according to others, by Seth, who transferred the body of his parent there after the flood, according to others, the head ended up on Calvary along with the waters flood In this regard, we should recall the eloquent legends about the tree of the cross, which grew from grain - from the seed that Seth placed in the mouth of the deceased Adam. People then uprooted the tree and brought it to Jerusalem to build a temple. Then it was discovered: the roots had penetrated the skull of an unknown person. The head was separated from the roots and thrown away. But during a hunt she was found by King Solomon, who decided to move his find back to Jerusalem. This is what they did, piously covering the skull with stones (they are now almost naturalistically reproduced by church craftsmen at the foot of numerous “calvary”). And the wood was later used to make the Cross on which Jesus Christ was crucified. The blood gushing from the wounds of the Lord watered the head of Adam and washed away the ancestral sin. The altar for proskomedia symbolizes the place of execution in the temple where Christ suffered on the cross and where the skull of the culprit of the Fall is buried. Therefore, was G.D. really so wrong? Filimonov?

Let us turn to other details of the Crucifixion. In ancient times, both Western European and Byzantine artists painted it with the same number of nails - four, that is, each hand and foot of the Savior was nailed with a separate nail. But from the 12th century in the West, feet increasingly began to be depicted stacked one on top of the other and pierced with only one nail. This detail quickly turned into one of the significant differences between the Orthodox and Catholic Crucifixions. Thus, Grand Duke Vasily Vasilyevich in 1441 informed the Patriarch of Constantinople Mitrofan, accusing Metropolitan Isidore of Moscow, a signatory of the union with Rome, that he, having returned to Moscow, during the procession to the Assumption Cathedral, ordered to carry in front of him the Latin Crucifix, on which the Lord’s feet were pierced with one nail. The Greek icon painter Theotokopouli, who moved to Spain in 1576 and undoubtedly converted to Catholicism there, becoming the famous artist El Greco, was “embarrassed” every time he worked on the Crucifixion. In almost all of his paintings in this subject, the second leg of Christ is so drawn into the shadow that it is difficult to understand whether one or two nails pierced the feet of the Crucified One (ill. 1).

The natural question is: for what reason did the Eastern and Western traditions diverge in the depiction of this iconographic detail? The Orthodox explain their features of the image by faithfulness to historical tradition: The cross brought by Queen Helena from Jerusalem to Constantinople had marks from four nails, which means that Christ’s feet were nailed each separately. For Catholics, the basis is the three nails of the Crucifixion, stored in the Vatican, and subsequently the data from the Shroud of Turin, in the prints of which the left foot is placed so on the right that it is quite possible to assume that they were pierced by one nail.

These interfaith iconographic contradictions are explained by scientific research of the twentieth century. The authoritative French surgeon Pierre Barbet, who carefully studied the shroud and the difference in the prints of the right and left feet, concluded that the right foot was quite clearly distinguishable, but only the heel of the left was imprinted because when the nails were pulled out and the body was wrapped in the shroud, the blood, flowing down, flooded the heel of the foot. Barbe came to an unequivocal conclusion: the legs of the Crucified One were nailed with two nails. The commonality of just such an execution was confirmed by archaeological finds in Giv’at ha-Mivtar, a suburb of Jerusalem, where in 1968, during the construction of a road, a bulldozer destroyed an ancient burial ground with the remains of 35 bodies buried there in 50–70 AD. Among other things, an ossuary containing the bones of a crucified man was found. His name was Johanan. Scientists have reliably established that the sufferer’s legs were also pierced with two different nails.

Thus, we can conclude: Orthodox iconography has a solid historical basis, and adherence to church tradition has again put to shame arrogant rationalism in understanding the facts. However, for the sake of objectivity, it should be noted: Catholics are not so categorical in relation to images of the Crucifixion. For example, a cross from the Temple of San Damiano in Assisi (XII century) - one of the main relics of the Franciscan Order, painted by an unknown Umbrian artist - with four nails (ill. 2). A similar Crucifixion can be seen in the Kiev Church of St. Nicholas of Myra. There are other monuments. This means that for Catholics in those days it was not so important. That is why, apparently, El Greco, taking the second leg of the Savior into the shadows, did not feel much fear of being accused of Greek schism before the then all-powerful Inquisition, and Zurbaran generally painted the legs of the Savior, although crossed, but pierced with two nails.

Let's say a little about hands. All the icons clearly show how the Savior’s hands are nailed to the Cross. Today it is common knowledge that it is impossible for a person to stay on the cross if he is nailed like the Savior on the Crucifixion icons. The small bones of the palms, especially at the point of their connection, are not capable of supporting the weight of the human body: it will fall off the cross, which was confirmed by Barbet through numerous experiments he carried out in the anatomical theater. From the traces of blood on the Shroud of Turin, the French surgeon proved that in reality the crucifiers drove nails between the ulna and radius bones of the forearm, next to the wrist. However, on Orthodox icons, nails are driven exclusively into the palms of Jesus. This is canon. Were the Byzantines really unfamiliar with the “technology” of such execution? No, we already know that even after the reign of Emperor Constantine, people continued to be crucified on crosses. Therefore, the point here is not the absence or presence of real experience, or even historical realism, but the saturation of the image with symbolic meaning and significance. Let's pay attention to the position of the robbers' hands. What do we see? In ancient images, their hands are often pulled behind their backs and tied to a vertical pillar of the cross or simply on both sides of the crossbar (Fig. 3). Therefore, icon painters consciously emphasize the features of the image of the Savior’s hands. In patristic theology there is a term kenosis, meaning exhaustion, humiliation, belittlement of God. Dogmatic theology considers Golgotha ​​the highest point of kenosis. It is logical to assume that the lowest point of human fall is the crucifixion of the Son of God by people. Humanity drove forged nails into the very hands that fed and watered the hungry, healed the hopeless, gave people grace and

“hold” the universe itself. The pierced hands of the Savior serve as an indication, on the one hand, of the immeasurable height of humility and kenosis, and, on the other, of the insane insolence and ingratitude of human pride. If icon painters had followed the path of the “truth of life”, moving the nails from their palms to the place where they were actually driven in, this meaning would have been blurred. But it turned out to be so important for the Church that it decided to transform it into the canon of the Crucifixion icon.

A noticeable distinguishing detail between the Catholic and Orthodox Crucifixion is the crown of thorns on the Savior’s head. The overwhelming majority of Russian and Byzantine icons of all centuries do not have a crown. As an exception, two images can be pointed out: the 8th century from the Sinai Monastery of St. Catherine and the 14th century from the festive rite of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Veliky Novgorod. But these deviations from the canon, due to their small number, can be ignored.

N.V. Pokrovsky believed that priority in painting the crown belonged to Catholic artists; they began to depict him “in the 12th–13th centuries in order to enhance the suffering appearance of the Crucified One.” This outstanding iconographer obviously did not know about the existence of the mentioned Sinai icon. Contemporary art critic and restorer V.V. Filatov, on the contrary, suggests that “from Jerusalem this feature was brought to the Catholic West by the Crusaders and there it became firmly established in the iconography.” But the Orthodox themselves, until the 17th century, rejected the crown on the Crucifixion (we leave exceptions outside the brackets). As far as we know, in the 17th century it was first found only in the Siya Gospel.

The tilt of the Savior’s head was also fundamentally important. On Orthodox icons we see it bowed to the right shoulder (Fig. 4), however, Western artists, following “realism”, often depicted the head without tilt, looking directly at the viewer, and if they depicted it bowed, then often at the chest, but also straight . The reason for this Orthodox specificity cannot yet be satisfactorily explained. You should pay attention to two options for depicting the Savior’s eyes. In one case the eyes are closed, in the other (more often in early monuments) they are open. It seems that here the Byzantine icon painters placed different emphasis: the Savior, with open eyes, recalls His Divine immortality, and with closed eyes, He lays down His life for “His sheep.”

There is also a connection between the Crucifixion and the liturgy. Quite early (from the 5th–6th centuries) in the iconography of this image, figures of warriors appear on the sides of the Cross. One of them gives the Savior a sponge with vinegar, and the other pierces Him with a spear (ill. 5). On the vast majority of ancient Orthodox icons, this wound occurs in the right side. Likewise, during the proskomedia, the first particle is taken out of the Eucharistic lamb from the right side precisely in connection with the perforation of the Lord’s right rib. Moreover, the weapon with which the priest removes the particles is called a “spear” and in shape actually repeats the tip of this weapon. “The interpretation of the symbolic meaning of the wound inflicted on Christ by Longinus, and the blood and water pouring out of it, goes back to Augustine,” reports A. Maikapar. “Holy blood and water are symbols of the holy sacraments - the Eucharist and baptism, and just as Eve was created from a rib taken from Adam, so the two main Christian sacraments poured out from the pierced rib of Christ, This New Adam.” Sometimes on ancient icons you can see an angel collecting blood and water pouring out from the Savior’s wound into a cup (ill. 5, 9). This further emphasizes the Eucharistic theme. Chain real event – ​​liturgy – icon completely obvious, and every link in it testifies to its inseparability.

Medieval artists placed not only warriors at the Cross. From the 3rd, and not from the 6th century, as is commonly believed, the Mother of God and John, the future Theologian, were depicted there; later Mary Magdalene, Mary of Jacob, Mary of Cleopas and Salome were painted (three of them stood at the Cross, although artists sometimes painted more) . Their profound images can be seen on the mosaic in the niche of the naos in the monastery of Nea Moni (Chios; c. 1050), on the Serbian fresco from the Church of the Virgin Mary in Studenica (1209), on the Byzantine icon from the reliquary of Cardinal Vissarion (middle XV century). Dionysius also expressively presented the three myrrh-bearers in the Crucifixion for the Trinity Cathedral of the Pavlo-Obnorsky Monastery (1500) (ill. 6). And nowhere, before the times of decline, is there almost a theatrical mise-en-scène, with loved ones supporting the exhausted Virgin Mary, as is often found in Catholic painting. Everywhere the Most Pure One does not die of grief, but “dies with Her Son,” as Archimandrite Agafangel (Dogadin) put it, courageously enduring the greatest sorrow when “iron passed through Her soul.” The sensual scene of “dying” belittles the spiritual feat of the Mother of God, if not deprives Her of this feat altogether. Despite their intelligent nature, the angels, who usually hover over the Cross and cover their faces with a himation, also have compassion for Christ. The Monk John of Damascus confirms for them the potential opportunity to grieve: “Being above us, as incorporeal and free from all bodily passion, they, however, are not dispassionate, for only the Divine is dispassionate.” Dionysius has another register of angels, but not mourning, but busy with the establishment of the Church in the form of a female figure in red and the expulsion of the Synagogue in the form of a woman in a crimson maforia turning back (ill. 7). Both the Church and the Synagogue have the same halos. The calling of both is to gather people in the name of God. According to Dionysius, at the Cross the Church receives its sacred rights, and the Synagogue loses them. However, it is not Dionysius who has priority in the development of such iconography. Its genesis is connected with the literary work of early Christian writers. In one of them, Clement of Alexandria, one can find two comparisons: the Church - with a pious woman with many children, and the Synagogue - with a mother who lost numerous children because of her unbelief. Later, such allegorization will find support in miniatures, and then in monumental painting. But in Rus' it will become relevant only at the end of the 15th century, on the occasion of the heresy of the Judaizers. Let us also pay attention to how the icon painters depicted the reaction of nature on the “Crucifixion” icon. They undoubtedly found the basis for this in the texts of Scripture. As you know, the evangelists talk about the darkness that broke out from the sixth to the ninth hour (Matt. 27: 45; Mark 15: 33; Luke 23: 44–45). Such a detail, unlike the earthquake that took place, is “more convenient” for the expressive means of painting. Therefore, images of the sun and moon have been included in church art since the 6th century (see, for example, the Gospel of Rabbala, 586), and not in the form of intricate ancient allegorical characters galloping on chariots or carts, similar to those found in Western monuments, but in the form of round faces (ill. 8). The moon, remaining in the circle, was sometimes depicted in profile. The sun and moon on crucifixes have no direct connection with antiquity and its mythology. Both in the Gospels and in icon painting we are dealing with the eschatological nature of the depiction of nature, and that is why the moon is often depicted red, and not the sun. This is consistent with the words of Revelation: “And behold, there was a great earthquake, and the sun became dark as sackcloth, and the moon became like blood” (Rev. 6:12). We find a similar prediction in the Acts of the Holy Apostles: “The sun will be turned into darkness and the moon into blood, before the great and glorious day of the Lord comes” (Acts 2:20). The story of the Evangelist Matthew about the rising from the graves of the dead undoubtedly echoes the theme of Judgment Day. He finds an extensive continuation in the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus, which directly influenced iconography, especially in the genre of book miniatures. Representative in this regard is the fascinating story of the resurrected Karin and Leukia, who are interpreted there as the children of Simeon the God-Receiver. But in icon painting such images are quite rare. Much more often, starting from the 5th–6th centuries, isographers painted robbers crucified on both sides of Christ (ill. 9). Their names are preserved in ancient sources, but they all call the robbers differently. In the Arabic Gospel of the Savior's childhood these are Titus and Dumas; in the Gospel of Nicodemus - Dismas and Gestas; in Erminia Dionysius Furnoagrafiot - Thesda the Jericho and Dima the Galilean; in a 16th-century manuscript from the library of Novgorod Sofia - Arag and Gesta; in the Word about the suffering and death of Christ according to manuscripts of the 16th–17th centuries - Dismas and Gevsta; in the originals dedicated to the passion of the Lord - Dijmon and Esta. In Rus', the prudent robber on the northern altar doors was designated as Rakh, but, according to Pokrovsky, this name is not associated with any literary sources. Its origin is unknown. To emphasize the hierarchical significance of the central image, most icon painters sought to iconographically identify and show the differences between the Savior and the robbers, even in detail. Thus, the main clothing covering the nakedness of the unfortunate was not a bandage, but a perizoma; As already mentioned, robbers were often not nailed to crosses, but rather tied; on the miniature of the Gospel from the university library in Athens (12th century) we see the Lord with a seven-pointed cross, and the robbers with a four-pointed one. Most likely, there were a number of other differences that were not taken into account here. Further differentiation went directly between the robbers: at the beginning of the Middle Ages, the malevolent Gestas was depicted with a beard, later - the prudent Dismas, for at the dawn of Christianity ancient concepts of beauty were still reflected, and with the development of the Christian worldview, the beard became one of the important signs of the image of Christ in man (remember in connected with this is at least the resistance of Russian Old Believers to shaving their beards).

In conclusion, it is necessary to especially emphasize the importance of iconographic details, although we have not considered all of them. As the holy fathers teach, there is and cannot be anything superfluous in the Church. So it is in the icon. She is a consequence of the Incarnation, she is the source of comprehension of Divine Wisdom, for in her everything is announced by heaven and comprehended by the conciliar consciousness. We could see this in the example of one of the central picturesque images of the Orthodox church.

25 / 06 / 2007

Execution by crucifixion was borrowed by the Romans from the Persians; it was applied exclusively to slaves and existed at least until the second half of the 4th century. It is generally accepted that it was abolished by Emperor Constantine the Great after 319, who signed a law banning the killing of slaves (as reported by his contemporaries Aurelius Victor, Cassiodorus, Sozomen). But other contemporaries - Xenophon of Ephesus, Firmicus Maternus, Pacutus and Chariton - testify to the execution of the cross in the 4th century. as if it were something ordinary. N.V. Pokrovsky writes: “This discrepancy can be reconciled by the probable assumption that the order of the emperor, as the fruit of his personal philanthropy, did not receive the sanction of the law for reasons unknown to us, and therefore individual cases of crucifixion of criminals occurred even after Constantine the Great. There really is no such law in Pandects. The pandects also do not legitimize execution on the cross, although it is prescribed that robbers should be executed at the scene of the crime" ( Pokrovsky N.V. The Gospel in iconographic monuments. M., 2001. pp. 402–403).

Zaraisky Vladislav. Two epochal discoveries // http://www.pravmir.ru/article_1161.html.

Bobrov Yu.G.. Fundamentals of the iconography of ancient Russian painting. St. Petersburg, 1995. P. 143. Clarification is also required for another thought of this author: “The Crucifixion is one of the central themes in all Christian art and is one of the twelve holidays that make up a separate row of the iconostasis” (Ibid. P. 141). The crucifixion, however, has never been and is not “one of the twelve feasts”; on the iconostasis, in the festive rite, it is sometimes found, but as a kind of counterpoint to a special passionate cycle. At the same time, it must be emphasized that the passionate cycle is a later phenomenon; it constituted the uppermost sixth row, which destroyed the hierarchical meaning and structure of the iconostasis, for this reason it did not take root. Sometimes it was introduced directly into an already existing festive rite, as was the case in Sofia of Novgorod during the expansion of the iconostasis in the 16th century.

I thank Archpriest Alexander Ranne, Associate Professor of the St. Petersburg Theological Academy, for pointing out this monument.

For example, the Cretan icon painter Emmanuel Lampardos in the second half of the 17th century. depicted the hands of Christ with folded fingers on the Crucifixion - similar, as they are depicted during a blessing, but for the prudent thief they are tied behind his back to the vertical beam of the cross, while the blasphemer is shown to us from the back, for he is crucified facing the cross, his hands are tied on the other side of the crossbar.

Kenosis- verbatim defecation, emptiness, derived from empty, empty, barren, flimsy, nonsensical.

Pokrovsky N.V.. The Gospel in iconographic monuments. P. 447.

Filatov V. Festive row of Sofia Novgorod. L., 1974. P. 43.

In the New Testament, as we know, warriors are not mentioned by name, but according to various ancient sources, as far as we have been able to establish, there are three of them: Longinus, Stephaton and Calpurnius. On Russian popular prints, however, there is also the warrior Labas, a Fryazin by birth. But no one dared deny that the guards themselves could have been called that way. The Church honors the centurion Longinus as a martyr, his memory is October 16/29.

Maikapar Alexander. New Testament subjects in painting: The Crucifixion of Christ // Art: Supplement to the newspaper “First of September”. 2000. No. 42 (210). November.

Matthew calls Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James and Josiah and the mother of the sons of Zebedee (Matthew 27:56). Mark speaks of Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James the less, Josiah and Salome standing afar off (Mark 15:40). Luke writes generally: “And all those who knew Him, and the women who followed Him from Galilee, stood afar off and looked at this” (Luke 23:49). John lists: “At His Cross stood His Mother and His Mother’s sister, Mary of Cleophas, and Mary Magdalene” (John 19:25).

We name the most famous monuments, but many wonderful frescoes, mosaics and icons remain beyond our sight for objective reasons.

True, in the named icon of Dionysius, Salome, hugging Mary, supports Her.

In the Slavic Psalter of Khludov they are called Karin and Litseosh. But the German researcher Lipsius considered them to be one person - the Gnostic Leucius Carinus.

Everywhere we called the prudent robber the first. In iconographic originals of the 16th century. he bears the name Barbarian, but we note that he was often confused with another robber - the Thracian martyr Barbarian, who suffered under Julian the Apostate. And as a result, the prudent robber sometimes found himself depicted in the clothes of a Thracian martyr.

In icon painting there are a large number of images that have a strong impact on the emotions and perception of believers. One of them is the “Crucifixion of Jesus Christ” icon, a photo of which is not difficult to see in any Orthodox gallery, and the image itself is in almost every church.

It was not by chance that the subjects of iconographic images arose at the dawn of the formation of Christianity. The icons fulfilled the mission of enlightenment; in the literal sense, they were illustrations explaining religious subjects. They told the newly converted about important events and the main milestones in the formation of Christianity. This dictated the appearance of most subjects in icon painting, of course, with the exception of the simple image of saints, although this was often accompanied by miniatures explaining their deeds.

What does the image look like?

What the “Crucifixion” icon of Christ the Savior looks like is not unambiguous; the image is written in different ways. The authors use various artistic techniques, which certainly have their own meaning.

The first thing that distinguishes the images is the background. Some authors use dark, gloomy tones, others paint the crucifix in gold. The dark background simultaneously emphasizes the tragedy of what happened and conveys the actual events, because during the crucifixion of Jesus the sun darkened.

The golden background is used more often by icon painters. This shade is a symbol of triumph, the very act of saving humanity through the sacrifice of Jesus. It also symbolizes the greatness of the Savior’s feat in the name of people, his victory over death. The victory of Jesus is symbolically expressed in another detail - the skull in the ground, written at the base of the crucifixion.

In addition to Christ, other characters are depicted on the icon, complementing its storyline. Their number also does not remain constant. In each image, only the Mother of God is canonically present; the other figures and their number vary. The sizes shown are also different. The difference in size conveys their status, meaning and importance.

Who else is depicted in the icon?

The icon “The Crucifixion of Our Lord Jesus Christ” invariably contains in its plot the figure of the Virgin Mary. As a rule, the Mother of God is depicted by icon painters at the right hand of Jesus.

In addition to the Mother of God, the plot of the image is often complemented by figures:

• John the Evangelist;
• the thieves taken by Jesus into heaven;
• Roman soldiers.

Often at the top of the image heavenly powers are depicted in the form of angels. In complex iconographic works, filled with details, rocks are depicted behind the crucifixion, symbolizing the earthquake that occurred during the execution. On wall frescoes, the plot is often complemented by the symbolic sun and earth painted in the upper part along the edges.

The complexity of execution and fullness of details are characteristic of old images that carried an educational mission. At the end of the Middle Ages, the “Crucifixion” icon of Jesus Christ was no longer overloaded with details; the emphasis was placed on the central figure, that is, on the most important event about which the plot of the image narrates.

How has the image of the Lord changed over time?

The plot of the crucifixion is one of the key ones in Christianity. Accordingly, iconographic images on this topic were among the first to appear. Of course, the icon of Jesus Christ “Crucifixion” has changed in appearance over the centuries, not only in how many details and characters were depicted on it. The image of the Savior itself changed. Icon painters of the early schools and the Middle Ages depicted the Lord in different ways.

Until the end of the 9th century and the beginning of the 10th century, the icon of Jesus Christ “Crucifixion”, although it was executed mainly in dark colors, the Lord himself looked alive and triumphant in the image. The palms were open and the arms were outstretched, as if Jesus was trying to embrace everyone approaching the icon. After the 10th century, the “Crucifixion” icon of Jesus Christ changes; the Lord is increasingly depicted as dead, with folded or drooping palms. This interpretation symbolizes the greatness of the Lord’s feat, the act of his redemptive death, and its importance.

What is the meaning of the icon?

Believers pray to the Lord for everything, and with every sorrow and misfortune they go to the images of Jesus. But not every image has the same meaning as an icon depicting the act of crucifixion.

This image not only invariably impresses believers, but also affects their emotions. The icon is a kind of short Gospel, because it tells about distant events that formed the basis of the Christian faith. This is a kind of “educational program” for those who gravitate toward the Lord, but have no knowledge of Christianity. That is, the image of the crucifixion is extremely important today, because decades of lack of spirituality in Russia, years spent, without exaggeration, in idolatry, called partisanship, have practically deprived people of basic, fundamental knowledge of the foundations of Christianity. Parishioners do not always even understand who exactly is depicted on any icon, and frescoes are often perceived only as a unique version of the design of church walls.

Accordingly, the meaning of the image in modern churches is similar to what it was centuries ago. The icon fulfills an educational mission and, of course, strengthens the faith of parishioners, influencing their emotional perception and impressing them. For this reason, the image is one of the first that believers see when entering newly opened churches that have been restored or are undergoing reconstruction.

How does an image help?

There are many images of the Lord, and each of them has its own plot. Its content is related to the understanding of who and what prayer will help in front of a specific icon. How does the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ icon help? In gaining and maintaining faith, in repentance and entering the righteous path.

From time immemorial, people who feel guilty about themselves, tormented by remorse and remorse, have been going to this image. A depressing emotional state can be caused by any reason. It is not at all necessary for a feeling of repentance to involve committing a bad act. Repentance often haunts people who have never done anything bad to anyone in their lives. A depressed emotional state comes with a lack of understanding of the meaning in one’s own life and awareness of spiritual emptiness.

Faith in the Lord saves you from such emotions. And prayer in front of an icon depicting the act of crucifixion has helped in repentance since ancient times and fills the soul with the light of faith and kindness.

How to pray in front of the image?

Of course, canonical services are held in front of the icon depicting the crucifixion, the troparion is read and other church actions are performed. It is quite possible for an ordinary parishioner to pray in his own words, because the main condition for turning to the Almighty is sincerity, directness of heart and purity of thoughts.

You can use this example prayer:

“Jesus Christ, Lord Almighty and All-Merciful! I humbly pray to you, Savior of human souls. And I entrust my life to You. To dwell in your bosom and see eternal life. Avoid Gehenna and the temptations leading to it. Overcome unkind thoughts. Avoid ungodly thoughts and actions. Accept me, Lord, teach me, enlighten me, guide me on the righteous path and have mercy! Amen".