Philological sciences. What does philology study? Russian philologists

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Introduction

Since ancient times, humanity has wondered about the origin of the word. Scientists who took up this issue called their activity philology. The word "philology" itself consists of two Greek roots. "Fillein" means "to love." “Logos” means “word”; its other meaning is “sense”: the meaning that the word carries and which is integral to the concreteness of the word. Philology studies “meaning”—the meaning of human thought and words, the meaning of culture—but not simple meaning, but the meaning that animates the word and is contained in its basis.

In the form of practically oriented knowledge and practical activity, philology arose in ancient times. One of the most important characteristics of this knowledge is complexity. Every scientist involved in philology had to have an encyclopedic education. This situation persisted until the mid-nineteenth century, when philology was no longer aimed at solving primarily immediate practical problems. In philology, scientific methods begin to appear and develop, and numerous processes of knowledge differentiation take place. The “pre-scientific” stage of philology is replaced by the scientific stage.

Philology is also represented as the art of understanding what is said and written. The sphere of her direct study includes language and literature. But in a broader sense, man “speaks,” “expresses himself,” “calls out” to his fellow human beings with every action and gesture. And in this aspect - as a being who creates and uses “speaking” symbols - philology takes a person. This is philology’s approach to being, its special, inherent approach to the problem of the human. It must not confuse itself with philosophy; her job is painstaking, businesslike work on the word, on the text. The word and the text must be more essential for real philology than the most brilliant “concept”.

1. History of the emergence of philology as a science

The term "philology" with the meaning of a comprehensive science appeared at the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 1st century. BC. The Greek Eratosthenes (late 3rd - early 2nd century BC) was called the first "philologist". This philologist also studied poetry, grammar, mathematics, geography, and history. In Ancient Rome, the first “philologist” is considered to be the teacher of rhetoric Atteus (III-II centuries BC). Attey studied philological and historical antiquities. According to the observations of Yu.S. Stepanov, the concept of “philologist” means a person diligent with words, studying words in the 3rd - 5th centuries. AD These are the beginnings of the terminology of the word “philology”. in the West and in the East, the emergence and development of philology as a practical activity and as practically oriented knowledge appears at approximately the same time: in the era of late antiquity, i.e. during the Hellenistic era in the West and the era of the Han Empire in the East, in China.

Scientists of that time were working on written texts, creating libraries; The largest library is traditionally considered to be the library in Alexandria (Egypt; III-II centuries BC). Another direction of philology of that time was education. In the 5th century BC. training consisted of reading and analyzing poetic texts, which by that time were assessed as first-class (“classical”) and required translation, commentary and interpretation. The direction of this activity was the basis for the emergence of poetics.

Poetics arose in the 5th-4th centuries. BC. in the writings of the sophists, Plato, Aristotle, who were the first to make attempts to distinguish and describe types of literary works, or types of literature: lyrics, epic, drama, and were the founders of the doctrine of genres.

Thanks to the scientific activities of ancient Indian and ancient Chinese philologists in the V-IV centuries. BC. Stylistic and grammatical teachings, the science of writing, and methods of interpreting text appeared in the world. A person who was directly involved in the practical aspect of philology, first of all, had to have knowledge of language / languages, analytical skills when working on a written text, broad culture, i.e., as Dionysius the Thracian (c. 170-90 BC) wrote AD), "awareness of most of what is said by poets and prose writers."

The ancient Greeks called philological activity grammatical art. People who devoted their lives to its study were called grammarians. Note that in this case the term “grammar” means something different than in modern linguistics. Dionysius the Thracian, for example, distinguished six parts in grammar: reading, generally understandable transmission of difficult words and stories, selection of analogies (establishing the place of the work being studied in the tradition), explanation of tropes, finding etymology, evaluation of works.

In the course of the development of philology as a science, the first philological professions gradually emerged - literature teachers, text interpreters, librarians, translators. These professions also include the profession of a rhetoric teacher. Rhetoric is a product of the democratic structure of Athenian society (5th century BC). This device required every citizen to be able to correctly present their thoughts, i.e. “to speak” - in a people’s assembly, in a court hearing, “on occasion” (in situations of celebration, praise, etc.). Rhetoric teachers taught citizens the art of eloquence; they created the first treatises and textbooks on rhetoric. Among the first surviving rhetorical works, we point out the dialogues of Plato (427-347 BC) “Gorgias” and “Phaedrus” and the treatise of Aristotle (384-322 BC) “Rhetoric”. Thus, the ancient rhetorician also works with the word (only oral); he must have encyclopedic education and understanding of man in order to select convincing arguments.

In the ancient world, philology as the “grammatical art” and rhetoric as the “art of persuasion” existed separately, as two different sciences of words. One of them, philology, is the science of “the word as such” (Yu.S. Stepanov), the other, rhetoric, is about the persuasive word.

In Ancient Rome, grammar and philology were separated; rhetoric still develops separately from philology. In the first half of the nineteenth century. philology develops as a science. In the middle of the 20th century. rhetoric is being revived, taking its place in the system of philological disciplines.

2. The main stages of the development of philology. The formation of philology as a science

Philology secured its status as practically oriented knowledge and activity until the mid-19th century. and is complex in nature. These features are observed at the initial stages of the development of philology.

Philology of the era of antiquity. Ancient eastern (India, China) and western (Greece, Rome) texts were studied back in the ancient world (10th century BC - 5th century AD). Here tasks appeared at different times that contributed to the development of philology as a practical activity. Eastern and Western traditions took shape and developed separately.

Classical philology arose on the basis of the Western tradition. It was formed in Europe during the Renaissance (XIV-XVI centuries) as a reflection of the ancient Greek and Roman heritage. This was a reaction to the dominance of church Latin, which became one of the manifestations of the humanistic position: “at the head of the universe is man.” “I placed you at the center of the Universe so that you could see everything that I placed there. I made you yourself; like a sculptor, you sculpt your own “I”. You can degenerate into an animal, but you are also able to rise alone the desire of your soul for the image of the divine,” God says to man in the work of the Italian humanist Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494).

The term "classical" is associated with lat. classis -- rank. The population of Ancient Rome was divided into categories: those that were included in the first category had the maximum wealth and the maximum number of rights. This is where the word classic got its meaning “first-class”.

Classical philology deals with the study of literature, languages, life of antiquity, history, philosophy, art, culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. It arose and developed as a complex of knowledge about the ancient world. To study it, a person had to have comprehensive knowledge about the ancient world: knowledge of the Latin ancient Greek language, history, law, politics, military history, culture, everyday life and much more. At the same time, some classical philologists are primarily engaged in the study of grammar and text criticism, others study culture, history, archeology, as well as the peculiarities of life of Ancient Greece and Rome. The result of the activities of classical philologists is the preparation of ancient texts for publication, their comprehensive commentary, the creation and publication of scientific works on the spiritual and material culture of antiquity.

Biblical philology deals with the multifaceted study of the Bible. Origen (185-253) is called the first biblical researcher, although already in the Bible itself we see commentary on the texts included in it. In the Bible you can find many texts that are varied in content and genre: laws and codes, chronicles, travel descriptions, hymns, aphorisms, wedding, lyrical songs and many others. other. The Bible consists of two parts - the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament was created in the 13th century. BC. to the 2nd century BC. Its texts are written in Hebrew, Greek and Aramaic. The millennium of existence of the Old Testament constantly required the interpretation of its constituent texts: languages underwent changes, sometimes in the process of rewriting details were added to the texts that were initially absent from them, the events, names and facts described in the texts were transformed from the memory of mankind, or even disappeared altogether. Thus, a purely philological problem arose related to reading, understanding and interpretation of the biblical text. The situation with the New Testament, which was created as a translation of the Old Testament, was more complicated: the tasks of reading, understanding, and interpreting the text were complicated by another one - the task of translation.

These are the main philological problems that arose in the study of biblical texts. The solution to these problems gave rise to two philological disciplines in the form of biblical criticism and exegesis. The main issue that biblical criticism studied was the question of the authorship of biblical texts. The search for an answer was based on a comparison of biblical texts and various mythological and folklore texts. Exegesis arose in connection with the study of Homer’s poems, and subsequently it turned to the study of sacred ones. The search for the only true interpretation of biblical texts - in the “original depth and holiness of the word of God” became her main task.

During the colonial conquests of the eastern peoples and territories of the 16th-17th centuries. European countries began to develop Eastern philology in Europe. This term reflects the Europeans' view of the territorial settlement of Asia and Africa by the peoples whose language and culture are being studied. Thus, Eastern philology was formed separately from the ancient Chinese and ancient Indian traditions.

The study of languages formed the basis of Eastern philology. The study of languages was later supplemented by the study of culture, geography, ethnographic literature, customs and morals, beliefs, political and military structure of the peoples of the East. Eastern philology has long existed as the most extensive body of knowledge and information about the peoples of the East. This complex combined knowledge of linguistics, literary studies, philosophy, history, regional religious studies, etc.

Thus, we are witnessing the formation of a philological tradition. Its existence and development is supported by the needs for practical philology from various spheres of society.

Confessional needs (lat. confessionalis - religious, church) had the most significant significance in the “pre-scientific” period of philology. First of all, this is the creation of alphabets and writing systems primarily to serve the needs of the cult-religious sphere, the translation of confessional books into modern (for a particular period) languages, etc. A profound contribution to the development of philology of that time belongs to the European Reformation - the movement for the social, cultural, religious transformation of society that unfolded in the 16th-17th centuries. Among its most important demands was the introduction of worship in the parishioners’ native language, the translation of church books into their native language, and these processes contributed to the expansion of the social functions of the language and actualized the problem of translation.

Thanks to interest in national languages and cultures, philology as a science gradually gained independence. In Europe, this interest contributed to the emergence of the sprouts of national philologies. The Renaissance is the period of the emergence and flourishing of national philologies. One example of work in this area is the treatise by Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) “On Popular Eloquence.” The leitmotif of the treatise is the question of the features of a number of languages contemporary to the author. The author believes that the French language is generally accessible and enjoyable; the first poems were composed in Spanish; Italian (or Italic, as they said then; Dante’s native language) has two advantages: first, “the sweetest and most refined” poems are written in Italian; secondly, it is most similar to Latin (the language of Ancient Rome). At the same time, work continues on the compilation of dictionaries and grammars of modern languages, and there is an increase in attention to works of literature in native languages.

Interest in national languages contributes to a deeper understanding of national culture; philologists are engaged in the development of various theoretical issues of philology. In France in the 17th century. Antoine Arnault and Claude Lanslot create a grammatical description of languages, which is based on the recognition of the universality of the categories of language. This idea was tested by the authors by comparing material from classical (ancient Greek, Latin, Hebrew) and modern (French, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, German, etc.) languages.

A significant contribution to the development of Russian philology was made by the works of M.V. Lomonosov (1711--1765): "Russian Grammar" (1755). This work is a model for grammars of the Russian language up to our time, and “Preface on the benefits of church books in the Russian language (1758), which lays the foundations for the doctrine of the genre and stylistic diversity of the Russian language.

An important milestone in the development of philology was the works of a number of German scientists from the late 18th to mid-19th centuries: F.A. Wolf, A. Böck, F. Schleiermacher and others. Historical events in the world led to the fact that from the middle of the 18th century Germany was in search of a basis for uniting its people. The search was based on the folk spirit, folk creativity, reason, which inevitably led to philology. It was during this period that the main features of modern philology were laid.

The stage of philology, which began at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, is called the stage of “new philology”, and Friedrich August Wolf (1759-1824) is called its founder. He was the first student known to cultural humanity who, upon entering university (in Göttingen, Germany), registered himself as Studiosus Philologiäe (philology student), i.e. used the given formula to denote the profession. After graduating from university, he was a teacher at a gymnasium for a long time, then was a professor at universities in Halle and Berlin.

At the gymnasium, Wolf showed an inclination and desire to study ancient languages, but at the university attending lectures was a burden for him; he preferred independent studies. At the end of his studies at the university, he presented an article as a trial work in which he outlined his views on Homeric songs; but for some reason Professor Heine reacted very coldly to Wolf’s work. However, this work was soon published. In 1783, Wolf was invited as a teacher at the university in Halle at the department of philosophy. In the process of philological studies and teaching, Wolf came to a new understanding of philology as a science of antiquity. It was formulated by him in lectures that he gave from 1785, and then in the essay “Darstellung der Alterhtums-Wissenschaft” (1807; “Essay on the science of antiquity / translated from German. St. Petersburg, 1877).

Wolf understands the science of antiquity as “the main content of knowledge and news that acquaints us with the deeds and destinies, with the political, scientific and domestic state of the Greeks and Romans, with their culture, with their language, art and science, morals, religion, national character and way of thinking, they are introduced in such a way that we become able to thoroughly understand their works that have come down to us and enjoy them, delving into their content and spirit, resurrecting ancient life before us and comparing it with later and modern life.”

He divides this science into two parts. The first part consists of the so-called service sciences, “preparing access to the subjects” of study. This group includes three sciences: grammar - the science “about all periods of the life of a language,” i.e. in fact it is linguistics; hermeneutics - “the art of insightfully revealing the thoughts of the author from their presentation”; philological criticism, studying the time of creation, the authenticity and originality of monuments, their original appearance. These sciences, according to Wolf, represent the organ of science proper.

The second part consists of sciences that study various aspects of the life of the peoples of ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Such are ancient geography, history, mythology, literary history, art history, etc.

“New Philology” acquires the meaning of its existence: the main question of philology is now the problem of understanding; This problem can be solved through the use of scientific methods that are used in the study of any people (hermeneutics, criticism, etc.). At the same time, the understanding of philology as a historical and philological complex of knowledge about ancient peoples (classical philology in one of its variants) is preserved. We observe the demarcation of philology and history in the 19th century. This gave rise to the transformation of philology as a complex knowledge into philology as scientific disciplines and a complex of sciences.

In the mid-nineteenth - mid-twentieth centuries. In philology, processes of knowledge specialization are actively developing. Various subject areas, which previously constituted complex philological knowledge, now represented the basis of individual sciences (scientific disciplines). Thus, within philology there was a division of philological sciences (scientific disciplines).

Within the framework of the “new philology”, national philologies originate: Slavic, Germanic, Romance, Turkic, Iranian, Altai, etc.; adjacent to them is Eastern philology, which has become a science. Classical philology continues to exist. This is one direction of differentiation.

The second direction promotes the division of philology as a complex knowledge into such philological sciences as linguistics, literary criticism, and folkloristics. By that time, ideas and principles focused on the study of language, fiction or folklore were developing in philology, which contributed to the emergence of these sciences.

The formation of each science takes its own course. The birth of linguistics as a science is associated with the beginning of the first half of the 19th century. comparative historical study of language (R. Rask, F. Bopp, J. Grimm, A.Kh. Vostokov). It put forward the task of restoring the picture of the historical past of languages on the basis of identifying so-called related languages and studying the peculiarities of natural language development. This line of research does not address practical needs. It left aside many types of traditional philological work with the text (criticism, interpretation of meaning, etc.). Thus, linguistics is isolated from other philological sciences. When interest in the study of the structure of language wins (F. de Saussure and others; structuralism), an intensification of the process of isolation is observed towards the end of the 19th century. and in the twentieth century. First of all, semiotics and natural sciences paid attention to this.

However, in linguistics the idea of language as the “spirit of the people” continues to be preserved and developed (W. von Humboldt). This is what, to a large extent, “keeps” the science of language within philology. The basis of scientific literary criticism was the study of fiction based on the biography of authors (1830s; S.O. Sainte-Beuve and others) and in comparative historical terms (1840s and later; G.M. Posnett, A. I. Kirpichnikov and others).

Folklore studies as a science appeared in the works of the German scientist Johann Herder (1744-1803), who noted that the “spirit of the people,” their views, feelings, and character are reflected in art; folk art is related to art. At its inception, folkloristics moved away from other philological sciences, especially from linguistics.

The next direction of specialization of scientific knowledge in the period under review is the internal differentiation of sciences.

Firstly, the philological disciplines that arose earlier were preserved and continued to develop. These include source studies, paleography, textual criticism, bibliography, archaeography, etc. New scientific disciplines are also emerging. For example, linguistic sections: historical linguistics, general linguistics, descriptive linguistics; sections of literary criticism: history of literature, theory of literature, literary criticism, etc. The differentiation of sciences was entailed by the formation and development of scientific schools in philology, i.e. unification of scientists with common views on the object of study. These include the appearance at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th of national schools: German, Belgian, Anglo-Saxon, French, Russian; and schools, which are united by the ideas of one or a group of major scientists, for example: Saussure (F. de Saussure, C. Bally, A. Seshe, etc.), Vinogradov (V.V. Vinogradov, S.I. Ozhegov, N.S. Pospelov, etc.) in linguistics, psychological (V. Wundt, D.N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky, etc.), formal (Yu.N. Tynyanov, V.B. Shklovsky, B.M. Eikhenbaum, etc.) in literary criticism, historical and geographical (Yu. and K. Krun), historical (V.F. Miller) in folklore, etc.

In philology of the first half of the twentieth century. ideas in favor of integration as a basis for research prevail. So, L.V. Shcherba (1880-1944) saw the task of philology in interpreting the meaning of an artistic text based on its linguistic and artistic qualities. This method of interpretation distinguishes a philologist from a linguist and a literary critic: a linguist studies the direct linguistic structure of a text, while a literary critic focuses on the study of artistic structure.

According to M.M. Bakhtin (1895-1975), the idea of dialogism constitutes the fundamental basis of philology. The word is in a relationship of dialogue with other words. This means that it is not only addressed to the object, process, etc., which it designates, but “talks”, “echoes” with other words of this and other texts. The same applies to statements and texts. So in the philological sciences of the first half of the twentieth century. ideas from the philology of the past take place, thus strengthening the interdisciplinary community of philological sciences. Subsequently, philology can become a method of integrative study of text, language, and finally, a person as an author, reader, character, etc. Moreover, this task, which contains the works of the great philologists of the twentieth century, corresponds to the research traditions of philology.

Thus, philology as a single, comprehensive, practically oriented science ceases to exist. The natural process of specialization of scientific knowledge leads to this. In its place a number of sciences and scientific disciplines are formed.

However, philology continues to function as a single branch of science. Self-knowledge of philology became noticeable during this period. The very fact of the existence of philology as an independent field of knowledge is actively debated in research circles. Domestic literary critic V.N. Peretz (1870-1935) sees the boundary between history and philology in the following: history is the manifestation of thought in existence in the external world, and philology is the manifestation of human creativity in the word as such. The Austrian linguist G. Schuchardt (1842-1927) argued that it is necessary to abandon even the very concept of “philology,” the meaning of which he calls uncertain, unstable.

Serious changes in the development of philology took place in the middle of the twentieth century. After the Second World War, the world's understanding of the value of human life and the possibility of the existence of different ideas and points of view increased. In the humanities, these new trends are expressed in the development of approaches to the study of man based on the principle of dialogism. In the second half of the 20th century. A new movement is emerging in social thought and culture - postmodernism (English postmodernism, French postmodernisme, German Postmodernismus). Man is presented as a “mechanical-organic monster” in postmodernist works (I.P. Smirnov). Accordingly, the artistic itself is deprived of integrity, and often coherence, and becomes “boundless”—open to all kinds of interpretations. philology science word rhetoric

The 1960s-1970s marked the beginning of the modern, or newest, stage in the development of philology. Gradually, in philology and its constituent sciences and scientific disciplines, man became the center of its knowledge. Philology follows the person - the creator and consumer of text messages. This adherence is manifested in the fact that the scope of philology includes all types, types, varieties of texts that a person creates. Thus, the problem of understanding has become relevant in science.

In the modern world, speech is regaining power. Among the reasons for this phenomenon, let us name the development of democratic trends in public life, the growing influence of mass communication, the need to influence the interlocutor, the audience, with words and not with violence. Because of this, rhetoric was again in demand. Based on the interaction of linguistics and literary criticism, new integral areas of research and teaching are being revived and emerging. Let us note two most important ones. The first is general philology. Its revival took place in the works of Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky (1926--1999), S.I. Gindin (b. 1945) and other domestic scientists. So, Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky substantiated the position that general philology studies the methods and forms of using language in social and linguistic practice. Nowadays, there is an intensive development of applied philology. In contrast to theoretical philology, it studies ways to solve practical problems that take place in the linguistic, literary and communicative sphere of influence of man and society. These tasks are related to analytical and expert activities, philological support of modern types of communication - political, legal, advertising, intercultural, Internet communication, etc.

Conclusion

Philology as a science originated in the times of Ancient Rome. Scientists all over the world have been studying the problem of the emergence of languages, their differentiation and classification. The formation of philology as a science has gone through many formative stages and continues to this day.

Nowadays, in philology and its constituent sciences and scientific disciplines, man is gradually becoming the center of its knowledge.

Philology follows the person - the creator and consumer of text messages. This adherence is manifested in the fact that all types, types, varieties of texts created and created by humanity fall into the field of view of philology. This actualizes the problem of understanding in science.

In the modern world, speech is regaining power. Based on the interaction of linguistics and literary criticism, new integral areas of research and teaching are being revived and emerging.

Thus, we are witnessing the formation of a philological tradition. Its existence and development is supported by the needs for practical philology from various spheres of society.

The formation of each science takes its own course. The birth of linguistics as a science is associated with the beginning of the first half of the 19th century. comparative historical study of language (R. Rask, F. Bopp, J. Grimm, A.Kh. Vostokov). It put forward the task of restoring the picture of the historical past of languages on the basis of identifying so-called related languages and studying the peculiarities of natural linguistic development. This line of research does not address practical needs. It left aside many types of traditional philological work with the text (criticism, interpretation of meaning, etc.). Thus, linguistics is isolated from other philological sciences. When interest in the study of the structure of language wins (F. de Saussure and others; structuralism), an intensification of the process of isolation is observed towards the end of the 19th century. and in the twentieth century. First of all, semiotics and natural sciences paid attention to this.

The next direction of specialization of scientific knowledge in the period under review is the internal differentiation of sciences.

The peculiarity of the approach in this textbook is determined by the modern post-non-classical paradigm, its interdisciplinary settings, cognitive evolution, which proceeds not only in the direction of abstraction of knowledge, but also in its contextual understanding, which determines the conditions for its inclusion in the holistic structure of ideas that help test the correctness of the hypotheses put forward. The textbook is aimed at overcoming the rigid distinction between humanitarian and natural science knowledge, so that philology does not remain closed in on itself. The purpose of this book is to introduce the reader to the best and most promising research that underlies the traditions of modern philology.

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1. Philology of classical antiquity: the teachings of Panini, the theory of language in the ancient period

2. Medieval theories of language. Arabic linguistics

3. Linguistics of the 17th-18th centuries: linguistic views of G.V. Leibniz, J.J. Rousseau, I. G. Herdera.

4. General rational grammar.

5. Standard grammars and dictionaries

The first stage in the development of linguistics is divided into three stages: the philology of classical antiquity, the linguistics of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and the linguistics of the 17th and 18th centuries. Although people have always and everywhere shown interest in language, the philology of Ancient India and Ancient Greece most significantly influenced the development of linguistics.

Knowledge about language, as we know, has accumulated over many centuries. The first thoughts about language were recorded already in ancient Indian treatises of the 5th-6th centuries BC. They were generated by Vedic culture, in particular by the need to explain religious texts that had already become difficult to understand for Hindus, created in a language that had fallen out of active speech use - Sanskrit. It was used only as a literary language by the 5th century. By that time, the languages of everyday communication had become Prakrits - spoken languages, on the basis of which the modern languages of India later emerged (Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Punjabi, Marathi, Gujarati, Oriya, Assami, Sindhi, etc.).

For the conscious use of Sanskrit, linguistic comments were created on ancient Indian written monuments, the oldest of which were vedangi.

The works of Jask, Panini, Vararuchi, and Patanjali became the most famous. The most ancient grammars describe not only the grammatical structure, but also the physiological characteristics of speech sounds, types of stress, and some sound processes.

Ancient thinkers (Heraclitus, Augustine, Democritus, Aristotle) raised and partially resolved philosophical questions of language. They were interested in the problems of naming (the theories of fuses and theses), the connection between thought and speech, the relationship between lexical and grammatical semantics, theories of anomalies and analogies, and questions of the origin of language. Along with the philosophy of language, the grammatical structure of the language was actively studied (Alexandrian and Pergamon grammatical schools). Roman grammarians were created based on the Greek model (Marcus Terence Varro, Aelius Donatus, Priscian). Great importance was attached to issues of rhetoric.

Arab scientists made a significant contribution to the development of the science of language. In the field of grammar, Sibawayhi (“Al-Kitab”) became world famous, in lexicography Khalil al Farahidi (“Book of Ayn”), Mahmud al Kashgari (“Divan of Turkish Languages”). The sound structure of the language was fruitfully studied. It was they who, for the first time in history, began to distinguish between the concepts of “sound” and “letter”.

The Middle Ages in the history of linguistic teachings are considered an era of stagnation. The main subject of study was Latin. On its basis, the ground was prepared for the creation of universal (ideal) grammars.

The universal grammars themselves emerge in the Renaissance (“The Grammar of Port-Royal” by Antoine Arnault and Claude Lanslot). The methodological basis was Cartesian philosophy (the philosophy of Rene Descartes - Latin name Cartesius). At the same time, interest in the comparative study of different languages was strengthening, historical linguistics, lexicography, and various theories of the origin of language were rapidly developing (J.-J. Rousseau, G. Leibniz, and I. Herder).

At the beginning of the 19th century, the prerequisites for the emergence of comparative historical linguistics were formed (Franz Bopp, Rasmus Rask, Jacob Grimm, A.Kh. Vostokov, etc.), on the basis of which the formation of general linguistics took place (W. von Humboldt, A.A. Potebnya , I. a, Baudouin de Courtenay).

In the 20th century in linguistics a) there is a trend towards the use of “objective” methods of studying language, requiring as much as possible to exclude the imposition of alien categories borrowed from other sciences (schools of linguistic structuralism); b) the principles of mathematical thinking are being introduced (mathematical linguistics, linguistic statistics, machine translation, etc.); c) the study of living languages (the study of living spontaneous speech) is considered a priority; d) the method of linguistic experiment is rapidly spreading; e) the formation of lexicology as an independent linguistic discipline is completed.

Glossary: subject of linguistics, object of research, research method, direction, theory, language, speech, speech activity, modeling.

Topic 3: Linguistic views of M.V. Lomonosov.

1. Russian grammar M.V. Lomonosov

2. Classification of parts of speech.

3. Phonetics and spelling.

4. The theory of three calms.

5. “A Brief Guide to Eloquence”

M.V. Lomonosov, taking into account the peculiarities of the Russian literary language of the 18th century, came to the conclusion that there were three “kinds of sayings” in it; the corresponding judgments of the great scientist colored the theory of styles for 2 whole centuries. Lomonosov's theory of three calms is based on the recognition of the diversity of Russian vocabulary of the 18th century, which was explained by the historical conditions in which the Russian literary language was formed over the previous 8 centuries.

Topic 4: Comparative historical linguistics

1. The emergence of comparative historical linguistics

2. Germanic and Slavic studies. Comparative grammar by F. Bopp, concept by R. Rusk, J. Grima, A.H. Vostokova, A. Schleicher

3. Philosophy of language by W. Humboldt. Morphological classification of languages.

4. Logical-grammatical and psychological directions in linguistics (F.I. Buslaev, A.A. Potebnya)

5. Infantogrammatic school

The leading place in comparative historical research belongs to the comparative historical method. This method is defined as a system of scientific research techniques used in the study of related languages to restore a picture of the historical past. Modern comparative historical linguistics, on the one hand, inherits the achievements and traditions of comparative studies of the 19th century, on the other hand, it poses new tasks and problems that have arisen in connection with the discovery of new facts and the development of linguistic theories. The study of connections between large families of languages that are in distant relationships and, possibly, kinship, influences the development of comparative historical and typological linguistics. With an increase in the volume of factual material - in addition to Greek and Latin, Germanic, Iranian and Slavic languages were studied - and the establishment of the relationship of the studied languages with Sanskrit, the comparative-historical study of languages took a significant step forward and clarified its subject and method. Thus, the disunity between European and Asian linguistics was overcome and the question of the unity of linguistics was raised. In the first half of the 19th century, linguistics emerged as a special branch of knowledge, clarified its subject and method, and acquired a modern structure. The main sections of linguistics were: general linguistics, understood as the philosophy of language and general grammar, comparative historical linguistics and private linguistics.

Topic 5: Linguistic schools in linguistics

1. Moscow linguistic school (F.F. Fortunatov, A.A. Shakhmatov, A.M. Peshkovsky). Learning language as a social phenomenon.

2. Kazan linguistic school (I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, N. V. Krushevsky, V. A. Bogoroditsky). Statement of general theoretical problems.

3. Foreign linguistics. Linguistic theory of Ferdinand de Saussure.

4. Structuralism. Prague linguistic circle.

5. Descriptive linguistics, generative grammar, glossematics

New schools, continuing what had been done previously, paid special attention to the problems of sociology and the structure of language. The sociological direction in linguistics is established in the struggle against the individual psychological and naturalistic understanding of the essence of language. The emerging neogrammatism is characterized by the recognition of the following basic principles of linguistics:

1. Language is not a natural organism and not an individual phenomenon; language is inherently social;

2. The subject of linguistics is not only the history of language, but also the structure of modern language, the definition of its units, their relationships and the structure of language itself;

3. For neogrammatism, it is typical to highlight theory and grammar, understood as the doctrine of the form of language;

4. Neogrammatism considered the most important theoretical issue of general linguistics to be the clarification of aspects of research and the classification of linguistic disciplines. The most significant schools of neogrammatism are: Kazan, Moscow, Geneva linguistic schools.

Topic 6: Soviet linguistics

1. General linguistic problems in the works of Soviet linguists.

2. Linguistic views of L.V. Shcherba, typological concept of I.I. Meshchaninov, grammatical teaching about the word V.V. Vinogradova.

3. Soviet linguistics of the late 20th century.

Soviet linguistics arose in the course of the historical development of Soviet society, its science and culture. The creation of the theory of Soviet linguistics began with mastery of the traditions of Russian linguistics. Particularly influential were the semaseological and grammatical concepts of A. A. Potebnya, the grammatical teaching of F. F. Fortunatov (especially as presented by A.M. Peshkovsky, D.N. Ushakov, A.A. Shakhmatov) and the ideas of I.A. Baudouin de Courtane (as presented by V.A. Bogoroditsky, E.D. Polivanov, and L.V. Shcherba). In the works of G.O. Vinokura, V.M. Zhirmunsky, B.A. Larina, A.M. Peshkovsky, L.P. Yakubinsky made a turn from historical linguistics to descriptive, to the study of living speech, speech culture, to the sociological and stylistic aspects of language.

Topic 7: Theory of linguistics. Language and speech.

1. The social nature of language, its internal structure and forms of existence.

2. Language and speech. Speech activity.

3. Linguistics and semiotics.

4. Types of signs and linguistic units

The connection between language and society is quite definite: language exists only in society. Society cannot exist and develop without language. A language that ceases to function and develop is a dead language: it is preserved only as an object of scientific study, knowledge of the past. Sociology of language, or sociolinguistics, is one of the main branches of theoretical linguistics that influences language policy and has direct access to practice - language construction. The concept of speech activity is so important that some scientists consider language as part of speech activity. And this is true only if language does not exist in itself as an abstract idea, but is the result and component of human activity. Speech activity has two sides: individual - mental and objective-social. Speech activity is, first of all, the act of people communicating with each other using language, a communicative act. Communication involves the generation and perception of speech, which is the psychophysiological mechanisms of speech. There are 4 main levels of speech production: motivational, semantic, grammatical and phonetic. Language is a sign system.

Topic 8: Sociolinguistics as the science of social functions and types of language.

1. Subject of sociolinguistics.

2. Psycholinguistics and ethnolinguistics as sections

sociolinguistics.

3. The concept of literary language. System of styles, language of fiction.

4. Nation and national language. Language and history. Language and culture.

The sociality of a language is characterized primarily by the spread of its literary norm, which is directly related to the socio-economic and cultural-political development of society. Literary language is the form of existence and functioning of language, a usage and norm of a special kind. A literary language is a processed and exemplary form of the language of a particular people. Literary language is characterized by the following features:

1. The presence of a written form that is normalized and codified;

2. Mandatory for all speakers of a given language;

3. Multifunctionality.

Nations arise on the basis of tribes and their unions. A common language and common territory, unity of spirituality and culture are the main characteristics of a nationality. Nations arise, exist and develop only in the presence of economic ties of a large number of people connected by a common territory and language. National identity, manifested in the unity of culture and spiritual make-up of people. The connection between language and nation is, specifically, historical, and the ways in which national languages are formed are varied. Each nation has its own language, but this does not mean that the language of a nation is always its own and all nations relate to their language in the same way. The language of interethnic communication is a language that is used as a means of communication between people of different nations, nationalities and ethnic groups.

Topic 9: Philosophical and linguistic methods of cognition

1. Philosophical methods of cognition.

2. Linguistic methods of cognition.

3. Comparative historical method, its main techniques

4. Methods and techniques of descriptive linguistics.

5. Comparative-typological method of studying languages. (Contrastive typology).

6. Methods and techniques for semantic grouping of material.

Philosophical method, i.e. method of cognition (dialectical and metaphysical), is the doctrine of the most general laws of nature, society and thinking. Cognition as a process includes three main stages: research (discovery of facts or their relationship), systematization (interpretation and evidence) and presentation (description). General scientific methods of research are observation, experiment, and modeling. The main linguistic methods-aspects are descriptive, comparative and normative-stylistic. Each of the linguistic methods is characterized by its principles and objectives. The descriptive method is a system of research techniques used to characterize the phenomena of language at a given stage of its development; This is a synchronous analysis method. Here we can distinguish the following types of analysis: categorical analysis, discrete analysis, component analysis, contextual analysis and many other techniques of linguistic analysis. Interlingual comparison arose, on the one hand, under the influence of the practice of teaching a non-native language, and on the other hand, as a result of the study of related languages. Two types of comparative methods are based on comparison of languages: comparative-historical and comparative-contrast.

Topic 10: Development of sociological trends in linguistics.

Topic 11: Language, speech and speech activity.

Topic 12: Linguistics and semiotics.

Topic 13: Language as a system. System and structure of language.

Topic 14: The social nature of language.

Topic 15: Philosophical method of learning language. Linguistic methods.

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Many people perceive philological sciences as something very vague and abstract. They know that this process is associated with learning languages, but they do not have more detailed information. And only those who have graduated from the Faculty of Philology can accurately and fascinatingly reveal all aspects of verbal science.

Concept of science

Philology - which studies the spirituality of different peoples, analyzes their writing, comprehends in detail the features of a particular language, and then collects the acquired knowledge into a single whole.

It is known that written texts are one of the sources reflecting the history of a people. The first of them appeared in the form of commentaries on complex words found in dictionaries, treatises and religious writings. Homer was the first whose notes were subjected to careful analysis.

Philology includes many subjects, and each of them deals with its own branch. Romano-Germanic philology, for example, is the most widespread in the world, as it deals with the analysis of Romance and Germanic languages.

Romance languages include:

French;
Italian;
Spanish and others.

The German group is among many studying English and German, one of the most widely spoken languages today.

History of development

Philological sciences appeared a long time ago, back in Ancient Greece. First, they emerged, then developed (during the Middle Ages), and already during the Renaissance, they flourished in full force. The very concept of “philology” began to take shape in the 18th century. Then we were talking only about the classical branch, which was subsequently followed by the Slavic branch. The founder of the Slavic branch is the Czech scientist Yosef Dobrovsky.

It is not difficult to understand the reason why the development of philology began. Europeans began to be interested in their national roots, sources, and development trends. This was facilitated by the development of a romantic worldview during that period, as well as the beginning of the fight against the Turkish invaders.

As for other types of science: each of them studies in great depth a certain branch and peoples related to it. There are many public organizations in the world that are engaged in one common cause, gather from time to time and exchange their achievements.

Complex of sciences

To fully understand what philology does, it is worth revealing which philological sciences are its components:

Linguistics. The second name is linguistics, which studies the very essence of language, its function, structure.
Literary studies. Examines the history of literature, its development and influence on the culture of the people.
Folkloristics. Folk art, folklore, myths and legends are the main subjects of study.
Textology. Its focus is on the works of various authors, the history of their appearance and their further fate.
Paleography. This science studies ancient manuscripts, their forms, styles, time and place of creation.

As can be seen from this information, philological sciences study language from all possible sides.

Famous philologists

Who is a philologist? This is a scientist who studies linguistics. This figure studies in depth the specifics of a particular language and draws conclusions about the spiritual heritage of the people who speak it. Russian philologists made a huge contribution to the creation and development of the Russian language.

Lomonosov M.V. was the founder of Russian grammar. He was one of the first to lay down the stylistics of the language. What we know now about parts of speech is the merit of Mikhail Vasilyevich. Being a skilled poet, he laid the foundation for different styles.
Vostokov A.Kh. He studied grammar exclusively and wrote many books on this topic.
Potebnya A.A. studied Russian and Ukrainian languages, paying great attention to grammar.
Shakhmatov A.A. studied the origins of language. Wrote several works on the topic of Russian language syntax.
Peshkovsky A.M. highlighted intonation in speech as a grammatical tool that helps to correctly express thoughts.
Shcherba L.V. was the discoverer of words in the state category and discussed the role of noun and verb in a sentence.
Vinogradov V.V. studied the history of Russian linguistics. He has written many books about the styles of the Russian language used in their works by various writers. His contribution to lexicology and phraseology of language is especially valuable.
Karamzin N.M. studied the Russian church language, significantly brought closer the literary and conversational style of communication.
Ushakov D.N. studied spelling, lexicology, and dialectology. He wrote 4 volumes of an explanatory dictionary containing 90,000 dictionary entries. Work on this project lasted for 6 years.
Dal V.I. known to everyone as the author of the Big Explanatory Dictionary, which in itself shows the depth of his research into the Russian language.

Philology of the Russian language

Russian philology is part of a huge Slavic section that studies the Russian people and their heritage. Back in the 17th century, the collection of data on ancient manuscripts began, which was carried out by Count Rumyantsev.

In the 18th century, Lomonosov wrote two famous books about the grammar of the language and the advantage of the church language, thereby continuing his study of stylistics. Until now, Russian philologists have not stopped working, continuing to analyze various styles, dialects and phraseological units. Only now these are modern figures who not only write works, but also share their discoveries with university students. After all, most philologists work in higher educational institutions and research institutes.

Foreign philology

This is aimed at the study of foreign languages, their history and characteristics. The literary heritage and works are studied in detail, a detailed analysis of styles and dialects is made, the knowledge of which greatly influences a person’s ability to speak and understand a native speaker of the language being studied. Translation practice plays a big role.

You can study the rules of spelling, grammar and phonetics for a long time, but without practical speech training you will not be able to speak and translate correctly.

How to become a philologist

You can become a philologist and devote yourself to the most interesting of sciences by enrolling in the Faculty of Philology. There are many educational institutions offering similar specialties. Some of them have departments dealing with different branches of linguistics: this could be Slavic, Indo-European, Romano-Germanic philology.

When choosing a direction, each student decides for himself which language and people interest him most and whose spirituality will be interesting to study. The best philological faculties in Russia are famous for such educational institutions as:

Moscow State University;
Russian State University for the Humanities;
Nizhny Novgorod State University named after Dobrolyubov;
South Federal University;
Irkutsk Linguistic State University;

This is a list of the most popular establishments among young people. But there are many more faculties in other universities where you can study your favorite field.