The Norman conquest of England and its results. Chapter IV
The Norman aristocracy was accompanied by the spread of continental types of government institutions and cultural factors.
1. Prerequisites
Harold spent the summer on the south coast with a large army and fleet in anticipation of an invasion from William. On September 8, he was forced to disband his forces due to food shortages. Having learned about the Norwegian attack, he went north, collecting new troops along the way. He managed to surprise the Norwegians, and defeat them in the extremely bloody Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September. Harald of Norway and Tostiga were killed, and the Norwegians suffered such terrible losses that only 24 of their 300 ships were enough to transport those who remained. The victory also came at a high price for the British, so Harold’s army was very weakened. Moreover, it was located far from the south.
3. Norman invasion
Meanwhile, William prepared for the invasion a large fleet and army, drawn not only from Normandy, but from all of France, including significant contingents from Burgundy and Flanders. Concentrated at Saint-Valéry-sur-Saume, the troops were ready to move by 12 August, but the operation to cross the canal was delayed, either due to unfavorable weather conditions, or due to an attempt to avoid a collision with the powerful English fleet. In fact, the Normans landed in England a few days after Harold's victory over the Norwegians and the resulting dispersion of his naval forces. The landing took place at Pevensey in Sussex on 28 September, after which the Normans built a wooden castle at Hastings, from which they raided the surrounding lands.
News of William's landing forced Harold to head south. He stopped in London to gather additional troops, so he went to William. On October 14, the Battle of Hastings took place. The British, having formed a solid wall of shields on the top of Senlak Hill, repelled the attacks of the Normans for several hours. The English infantry suffered heavy losses in the fight against the Norman cavalry. In the evening, the strength of the English army dried up, organized resistance ceased, and Harold died, as did his brothers Count Gears and Count Leofwin.
William expected that victory at Hastings would force the English leaders to recognize his superiority. But Witengamot, with the support of Counts Edwin and Morcar, as well as Archbishop Stigand of Canterbury and Archbishop Eldred of York, proclaimed Edgar Etheling king. William launched an attack on London along the Kentish coast. He defeated the English troops who attacked his White Southwark, but was unable to storm London Bridge, so he had to look for other routes to the capital.
William and his army set out along the Thames Valley, intending to cross the river at Wallingford, Berkshire; while there, he received a message from Stigand. He then went northeast along the Chiltern Hills in order to further approach London from the northwest. Having failed in their attempts to repel their attackers militarily, Edgar's main supporters, in desperation, showed themselves to William in Berkhamsteady, Hertfordshire. William was proclaimed King of England. Eldred crowned him on 25 December of the year in Westminster Abbey.
4. British resistance
Despite previous events, local resistance continued for several more years. In Kent, rebels, supported by Eustace II of Bologna, launched an unsuccessful attack on Dover Castle. That same year, the Shropshire landowner Edric the Wild, with his allied Welsh rulers of the lands of Gwynedd and Hang, rebelled in western Mercia, attacking the Norman forces located in Hereford. As William laid siege to Exeter by rebel forces, among whom was Gytha Thorkelsdottir, Harold suffered heavy casualties but was able to negotiate the city's surrender.
Later that year, Edwin and Morcar led a revolt in Mercia with Welsh help, and Earl Gospatric led a rebellion in Northumbria, which was not yet occupied by the Normans. These revolts quickly ended when William moved against them, building fortresses and posting pledges as he had done in the south. Edwin and Morcar again submitted to the rule of the Normans, but Gospatric fled to Scotland, as did Edgar Etheling and his family, who were also involved in the rebels. Meanwhile, Harold's sons, who had taken refuge in Ireland, raided Somerset, Devon and Cornwall by sea.
In time, resistance again developed in western Mercia, where Edric the Wild with his Welsk allies and more rebels from Cheshire and Shropshire attacked Shrewsbury Castle. In the southwest, rebels from Devon and Cornwall attacked the Norman troops at Exeter, but their attack was repulsed and the attackers were scattered by the Normans of Earl Briand, who arrived to relieve the castle. Other rebels from Dorset, Somerset and surrounding areas besieged Montacute Castle, but were defeated by Norman troops under Geoffroy where Montbry, raised against them from London, Winchester and Salisbury.
Meanwhile, William attacked the Danes who settled for the winter south of the Humber in Lincolnshire and drove them back to the north coast. Leaving Lincolnshire to Robert de Mortain, he marched west and defeated the Mercian rebels at Stafford. When the Danes crossed the Humber again, they were once again turned back across the river by Norman troops. William went to Northumbria by thwarting an attempt to block his troops crossing the River Erie near the city of Pontefract. His appearance forced the Danes to flee, and he occupied York, after which he entered into an agreement with the Danes, who now agreed to leave England for money in the spring. In winter, Norman troops systematically desecrated Northumbria, destroying all possible resistance.
No other medieval conquest of Christians by Christians had such devastating consequences for the ruling class of the defeated side. Meanwhile, William's prestige among his followers grew high, because he could reward them with significant land plots without much strain on himself. These awards, in addition, contributed to the strengthening of the power of William himself, so each new feudal lord had the opportunity to build a castle and conquer the local population. Thus the conquest fed on itself.
7. English emigration
Large numbers of Englishmen, especially those belonging to the destroyed class of former landowners, finally found Norman rule intolerable and emigrated. Particularly popular destinations for emigration were Scotland and the Byzantine Empire, some of the emigrants moved to Scandinavia or even more distant regions, such as Rus' or along the shores of the Black Sea. Most of the English gentry and soldiers emigrated to Byzantium, where they formed the majority in the so-called Varangian Guard, which consisted mainly of immigrants from Scandinavia. The English Varangians continued to serve the Empire at least until the middle of the 14th century.
8. Public administration system
Before the arrival of the Normans, Anglo-Saxon England had one of the most complex systems of government in Western Europe. The country was divided into administrative units (the so-called "shiri") of approximately the same size and shape, which were administered by individuals called "Shirsky snout" or "Sheriff". "Shiri" tended to enjoy a certain autonomy and did not have overall coordinated control. The English government widely used written documentation in its activities, which was extremely unusual for Western Europe at that time and ensured effective management than oral orders.
English government bodies had permanent locations. Most medieval governments were always on the move and carried out their activities wherever there were favorable weather conditions or food supplies at that time. This practice limited the possible size and complexity of government machinery, especially the treasury and library - armor for these industries should be limited to objects of the size that could be loaded on a horse and visa. England had a permanent treasury in Winchester, from which the spread of a permanent bureaucratic government apparatus and document flow began.
This complex form of medieval government was adopted and further developed by the Normans. They centralized the system of autonomous shires. The Domesday Book provides examples of the practical codification that made it easier for the Normans to assimilate conquered territories through central control of the census. This was the first national census in Europe since the Roman Empire and allowed the Normans to more effectively collect taxes from their new possessions.
The accounting system has grown significantly and become more complex. The so-called Chamber of Boards was founded by Heinrich I. In the year shortly after Henry's death, the Chamber was located in the Palace of Westminster. Now the office of the President of the Chamber was located nearby, by the Angevin dynasty, who spoke a more generalized dialect of French. It was only in the fourteenth century that the English language partially regained its former dominance, and in legal proceedings French was used even in the fifteenth century.
During this time, the English language itself underwent significant changes, developing into a rather different version of Middle English from the previous version, which became the basis of modern English. During the centuries of French linguistic dominance, a significant part of the words in the English language disappeared and were replaced by French equivalents, thus the current hybrid speech arose, in which basic English vocabulary is combined with predominantly French abstract and technical ones. The grammatical structures of the language also underwent significant changes, although it is not clear how much of these changes are related specifically to the marginalization of English after the Norman Conquest.
10. Relations with France
After the conquest, relations between the Anglo-Norman monarchy and the French crown became increasingly unmanageable. Even before the invasion, William had significant tension in his relations with the Capetians, which was further increased by the Capetian support for his son Robert Kurtghoz, who led the war against his father and subsequently against his brothers. As Duke of Normandy, William and his descendants were vassals of the French king, but as king of England he was therefore an equal.
In the year, with the creation of the Angevin Empire, the Plantagenets, the successors of the Norman dukes, controlled half of France and all of England, which exceeded the power of the Capetians. The contradictions arising from this situation intensified even more with the growth of the French monarchy and the expansion of its rights and power over its vassals. The crisis finally took shape in 1204-1453, effectively breaking the ties created in the year. Thus, the involvement of the English kingdom in the affairs of the continental possessions and the interests of the French landowners who seized the throne in England involved England in almost four centuries of wars against the kings of France. These conflicts laid the foundation for further Anglo-French rivalry.
11. Further consequences
Already in the 12th century, as evidenced by the Dialogue on the Chessboard Chamber, there was a significant increase in the number of intermarriages between natural Englishmen and Norman immigrants. In later centuries, especially after the Black Death pandemic wiped out a large proportion of the English nobility, the two groups became even more intermingled until the differences between them became barely noticeable. Spain.
England faced a massive wave of Scandinavian Viking raids on its territory. The Anglo-Saxon king Æthelred II, wanting to secure support for himself against the Vikings, married Emma, sister of the Norman Duke Richard II, in 1002. However, Ethelred II did not receive help from the Normans and in 1013 he was forced to flee with his family to Normandy.
Harold's election was contested by William of Normandy. Relying on the will of King Edward, as well as on Harold's oath of allegiance, probably taken during his trip to Normandy in /1065, and appealing to the need to protect the English church from usurpation and tyranny, William put forward his claim to the crown of England and began preparations to an armed invasion. At the same time, Harald the Severe, king of Norway, claimed the English throne, whose predecessor in 1038 entered into an agreement with the son of Canute the Great on the mutual inheritance of kingdoms in the event of childlessness of one of the monarchs. The Norwegian king, having entered into an alliance with Harold II's exiled brother Tostig Godwinson, also began to prepare for the conquest of England.
Preparation
Strengths of the parties
The Normans had extensive experience in military operations with small detachments of cavalry from fortress castles, which were quickly erected on the captured territory as support bases for the purpose of its further control. The wars with the kings of France and the counts of Anjou allowed the Normans to improve their tactics against large enemy formations and establish clear interaction between the branches of the military. William's army consisted of feudal militia from Norman barons and knights, cavalry and infantry contingents from Brittany, Picardy and other northern French areas, and mercenary troops. On the eve of the invasion of England, William organized a massive construction of ships.
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Preparing for the invasion
The Norwegian invasion of England in 1066. The dotted lines indicate the boundaries of the possessions of the House of Godwin
At the beginning of 1066, William began preparations for the invasion of England. Although he received approval for this enterprise from the meeting of the barons of his duchy, the forces allocated by them were clearly insufficient for such a large-scale and prolonged military operation outside Normandy. William's reputation ensured an influx of knights into his army from Flanders, Aquitaine, Brittany, Maine and the Norman principalities of Southern Italy. As a result, the Norman contingent itself constituted less than half of the army. William also won the support of the Emperor and, more importantly, Pope Alexander II, who hoped to strengthen the position of the papacy in England and remove the renegade Archbishop Stigand. The Pope not only supported the claims of the Norman Duke to the English throne, but also, presenting his consecrated banner, blessed the participants in the invasion. This allowed Wilhelm to give his event the character of a “holy war”. Preparations were completed by August 1066, but a headwind from the north for a long time did not allow the crossing of the English Channel to begin. On September 12, William moved his army from the mouth of the Dives River to the mouth of the Somme, to the town of Saint-Valery, where the width of the strait was significantly smaller. The total strength of the Norman army, according to modern researchers, numbered 7-8 thousand people, for the transportation of which a fleet of 600 ships was prepared.
The English king also made preparations to repel the Norman invasion. He called up national militia from the south-eastern regions of England and stationed troops along the south coast. A new fleet was formed at a rapid pace, headed by the king. In May, Harold managed to repel the raid of his rebellious brother Tostig on the eastern regions of the country. However, in September the Anglo-Saxon naval defense system collapsed: food shortages forced the king to disband the militia and navy. In mid-September, the army of the Norwegian king Harald the Severe landed in northeastern England. Linking up with Tostig's supporters, the Norwegians defeated the northern counties' militia at the Battle of Fulford on 20 September and brought Yorkshire into submission. The King of England was forced to abandon his positions on the south coast and quickly move north. Having united his army with the remnants of the militia, on September 25, at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, Harold completely defeated the Vikings, Harald the Severe and Tostig were killed, and the remnants of the Norwegian army sailed to Scandinavia. However, significant losses suffered by the English at the battles of Fulford and Stamford Bridge, especially among the royal housecars, undermined the fighting efficiency of Harold's army.
Conquest
Battle of Hastings
William the Conqueror and Harold during the Battle of Hastings
Two days after the Battle of Stamford Bridge, the direction of the winds in the English Channel changed. The loading of the Norman army onto ships began immediately, and late in the evening of September 27, William's fleet sailed from Saint-Valery. The crossing took the whole night, and there was a moment when the Duke’s ship, having become far separated from the main forces, was left alone, but there were no English ships in the strait, and the transportation of the army was completed safely on the morning of September 28 in the bay near the city of Pevensey. The Norman army did not remain in Pevensey, surrounded by marshes, but moved to Hastings, a more convenient port from a strategic point of view. Here William built a castle and began to wait for the approach of English troops, sending small detachments deep into Wessex to conduct reconnaissance and obtain provisions and forage.
Coronation of William I
After the Battle of Hastings, England found itself open to conquerors. During October - November 1066, Kent and Sussex were captured by the Norman army. Queen Edith, widow of Edward the Confessor and full sister of Harold II, recognized William's claims by placing under his control the ancient capital of the Anglo-Saxon rulers, Winchester. London remained the main center of resistance, where Edgar Etheling, the last representative of the ancient Wessex dynasty, was proclaimed the new king. But William's troops surrounded London, devastating its surroundings. The leaders of the national party - Archbishop Stigand, Earls Edwin and Morcar, the young Edgar Etheling himself - were forced to submit. At Wallingford and Berkhamsted they swore an oath of allegiance to William and recognized him as king of England. Moreover, they insisted on the immediate coronation of the Duke. Soon Norman troops entered London. On December 25, 1066, William was crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey.
Although the coronation of William I took place in accordance with the Anglo-Saxon tradition, which was supposed to convince the population of the legality of the rights of the new king to the English throne, the power of the Normans at first relied exclusively on military force. Already in 1067, the construction of the Tower fortress in London began, and then Norman castles grew throughout southern and central England. The lands of the Anglo-Saxons who participated in the Battle of Hastings were confiscated and distributed to the soldiers of the invading army. By the end of March 1067, William the Conqueror's position had become somewhat stronger, and he was able to make a long trip to Normandy. He was accompanied by the leaders of the Anglo-Saxon party - Prince Edgar, Archbishop Stigand, Earls Morcar, Edwin and Waltaf, as well as hostages from other noble families. During the king's absence, England was governed by his closest associates: William Fitz-Osbern, Earl of Hereford, and William's half-brother, Bishop Odo.
The situation in England was quite tense. The Norman administration controlled only the southeastern regions of the country. The rest of the kingdom was governed only thanks to the large Anglo-Saxon magnates who expressed their loyalty to William. Immediately after his departure, a wave of rebellions broke out, especially large ones in southwestern England. Harold Godwinson's sons, having found refuge in Ireland, began gathering their supporters. Opponents of the new government sought support at the courts of the rulers of Scandinavia, Scotland and Flanders. The situation required William's speedy return to England. At the end of 1067, after spending the summer and autumn in Normandy, he returned to the conquered kingdom. The southwest of England was pacified, then an attempt by Harold's sons to land at Bristol was repulsed. In the summer of 1068, William's wife Matilda was crowned Queen of England.
Subjugation of Northern England
The Norman conquest of England in 1066 and the Anglo-Saxon uprisings of 1067-1070.
In 1068, William the Conqueror's situation worsened: Edgar Ætheling fled to Scotland, where he received the support of King Malcolm III, and a rebellion broke out in the north of England. Wilhelm acted decisively. Having built a castle at Warwick, he headed into the northern English counties and occupied York without resistance. The local nobility took an oath of allegiance to the king. On the return journey, castles were erected at Lincoln, Nottingham, Huntingdon and Cambridge, which made it possible to control the route to northern England. But already at the beginning of 1069, a new uprising broke out in the north, in which not only feudal lords, but also peasants took part. On January 28, 1069, Anglo-Saxon troops burst into Durham, destroyed the squad of the Norman Earl of Northumbria, Robert de Comyn, and burned him alive. The rebellion against the conquerors then spread to Yorkshire, and York itself was captured by the Ætheling's supporters. William's second campaign to the north made it possible to occupy York and suppress the uprising, brutally dealing with the rebels. Until the autumn of 1069, the Normans managed to eliminate pockets of resistance relatively easily, since the rebels in different parts of England did not have common goals, unified leadership and did not coordinate their actions with each other.
In the autumn of 1069 the situation changed radically. The English coast was attacked by a huge fleet (250-300 ships) under the command of the sons of the Danish king Sven II Estridsen, heir to the house of Canute the Great, who also laid claim to the English throne. King Malcolm of Scotland married Edgar's sister Margaret and recognized the Ætheling's rights to the English throne. Edgar himself entered into an alliance with Sven. At the same time, an anti-Norman uprising broke out in the County of Maine, supported by the Counts of Anjou and King Philip I of France. William's opponents entered into relations with each other, thereby forming a coalition. Taking advantage of the Danish invasion, the Anglo-Saxons rebelled again in Northumbria. A new army was formed, led by Edgar Ætheling, Cospatrick and Waltheof, the last of the major Anglo-Saxon nobility. Having united with the Danes, they captured York, defeating its Norman garrison. The rebellion spread across northern and central England. The Archbishop of York expressed support for the rebels. The possibility arose of holding Edgar's coronation in York, which would have called William's legitimacy into question. However, the approach of the Anglo-Norman army forced the rebels to retreat from York. The king was soon forced to leave the north again, facing revolts in western Mercia, Somerset and Dorset. Only after the suppression of these protests was William able to take decisive action against the North English rebels.
At the end of 1069, the troops of William the Conqueror re-entered northern England. The Danish army retreated to the ships and left the area. This time, the Normans began systematically devastating the lands, destroying Anglo-Saxon buildings and property, trying to eliminate the very possibility of a repeat uprising. Villages were burned en masse, and their inhabitants fled south or to Scotland. By the summer of 1070, Yorkshire had been ruthlessly ravaged. County Durham was largely depopulated as survivors fled from burned villages. William's troops reached Tees, where Cospatrick, Waltheof and other Anglo-Saxon leaders submitted to the king. The Normans then marched quickly across the Pennines and fell into Cheshire, where the devastation continued. Devastation also reached Staffordshire. Next, an attempt was made to destroy what allowed the inhabitants to exist. The north of England was gripped by famine and plague. By Easter 1070, a campaign that has gone down in history as the "Desolation of the North" (eng. Harrying of the North), was completed. The effects of this devastation were still vividly felt in Yorkshire, Cheshire, Shropshire and the "area of the five burghs" decades after the conquest.
In the spring of 1070, the Danish fleet, now led by King Sven himself, remained in English waters, settling on the island of Ely. The last representatives of the unconquered Anglo-Saxon nobility also flocked here. The leader of the resistance was the poor ten Hereward. Among the participants in the uprising were not only nobles, but also peasants. Anglo-Danish troops made harassing raids on the coasts of East Anglia, destroying Norman formations and ravaging Norman possessions. However, in the summer of 1070, William managed to conclude an agreement with the Danes on their evacuation for a huge ransom. After the departure of the Danish fleet, the defense of Ili was led by Hereward, who was joined by more and more detachments from other regions of the country. Thus, one of the most influential Anglo-Saxon aristocrats arrived on the island of Ely - Morcar, the former earl of Northumbria. It was the last stronghold of Anglo-Saxon resistance. In the spring of 1071, William's troops surrounded the island and blocked its supplies. The defenders were forced to capitulate. Hereward managed to escape, but Morcar was captured and soon died in prison.
The fall of Ely marked the end of the Norman conquest of England. Resistance to the new government ceased. Only skirmishes continued on the border with Scotland, where Edgar Etheling again found refuge, but in August 1072, William’s army, supported by large naval forces, invaded Scotland and reached Tay unhindered. The Scottish king Malcolm III concluded a truce with William in Abernethy, brought him homage and pledged not to support the Anglo-Saxons. Edgar was forced to leave Scotland. The conquest of England was over.
Organization
General principles
The main principle of organizing the management system of conquered England was the desire of King William to look like the legitimate successor of Edward the Confessor. The constitutional basis of the Anglo-Saxon state was completely preserved: the Witenagemot was transformed into the Great Royal Council, the prerogatives of the Anglo-Saxon kings passed in full to the Anglo-Norman monarchs (including the rights of taxation and the sole publication of laws), the system of counties led by royal sheriffs was preserved. The scope of landowners' rights was determined as of the time of King Edward. The very concept of monarchy was Anglo-Saxon in nature and contrasted sharply with the state of royal power in modern France, where the sovereign fought desperately for his recognition by the largest barons of the state. The principle of continuity with the Anglo-Saxon period was especially clearly manifested in the first years after the conquest (before the uprising in Northern England in 1069), when a significant part of the Anglo-Saxon magnates retained their positions at court and influence in the regions.
However, despite all the appearance of a return to the “good times” of King Edward (after the usurpation of Harold), the power of the Normans in England rested mainly on military force. Already in December 1066, the redistribution of lands began in favor of the Norman knights, which after the “Devastation of the North” of 1069-1070. has become universal. By the 1080s, the Anglo-Saxon nobility had been completely destroyed as a social stratum (with a few exceptions) and replaced by northern French knighthood. A small group of the most noble Norman families - William's closest associates - received more than half of all land allotments, and the king himself took possession of about a fifth of the lands of England. The nature of land holdings changed completely, which acquired classic feudal features: lands were now provided to barons under the condition of fielding a certain number of knights if necessary for the king. The whole country was covered with a network of royal or baronial castles, which became military bases providing control over the area, and residences of barons or officials of the king. A number of areas of England (Herefordshire, Cheshire, Shropshire, Kent, Sussex) were organized as militarized territories responsible for the defense of the borders. Of particular importance in this regard were the Cheshire and Shropshire stamps, created by Hugo d'Avranches and Roger de Montgomery on the border with Wales.
Land ownership and social structure
Model of an Anglo-Norman castle
Having captured England, William divided its territory into 60,215 land fiefs, dividing them among his vassals. The specificity of the distribution of land holdings in England after the conquest was that almost all new barons received land in separate plots scattered throughout the country, which, with rare exceptions, did not form compact territories. Although it is probably impossible to say that the fragmentation of land holdings granted to the feud was a deliberate policy of King William, this feature of the organization of land ownership in Norman England did not allow the emergence of feudal principalities like the French or German ones, which played a huge role in the subsequent history of the country, and ensured preponderance king over barons.
The conquest created a new ruling class, the knights and barons of Norman origin. The new nobility owed their position to the king and performed a whole range of duties in relation to the monarch. Chief among these duties were military service, participation three times a year in the Great Royal Council, as well as holding various positions in government (primarily sheriffs). After the conquest and destruction of the Anglo-Saxon tradition of extensive earls, the role of sheriffs increased sharply: they became a key element of the royal administration on the ground, and in terms of their possessions and social status they were not inferior to the Anglo-Norman earls.
Church authority
Norman influence was especially strong in church circles. All of William's actions in the church sphere were carried out with the full support of the Holy See. One of the first decisions was to renew the annual payment of St. Peter's Mite to Rome. A few years after the conquest of England, Archbishop Stigand of Canterbury was removed, and the king's closest advisor, Lanfranc, became his successor. All vacant seats were provided not to Anglo-Saxons, but to foreigners, primarily immigrants from France. Already in 1087, Wulfstan of Worcester remained the only bishop of Anglo-Saxon origin. At the beginning of the 13th century, as a result of the emergence of mendicant monastic brotherhoods, consisting almost entirely of foreigners, the influence of foreigners in church circles increased even more. Many schools were opened in which, unlike on the continent, where instruction was in Latin, instruction was in French. The influence of church authorities increased. A separation of secular and ecclesiastical jurisdiction was carried out. As a result of unified integration, inter-church influence was strengthened. William's decree, stating that all ecclesiastical proceedings should be dealt with by bishops and archbishops in their own courts "in accordance with the canons and episcopal laws", made it possible to further implement the adoption of canon law. The Normans transferred the diocesan thrones to those cities where they still exist. The episcopal structure of the church in England, established by the Normans, remained almost unchanged until the period of the Reformation.
At the same time, Wilhelm very harshly defended his sovereignty in relations with Rome. Without his knowledge, not a single feudal lord, including church lords, could correspond with the Pope. Any visit of papal legates to England was subject to approval by the king. Decisions of church councils were possible only with his approval. In the confrontation between Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII, William maintained strict neutrality, and in 1080 he refused to pay homage to the Pope on behalf of his English kingdom.
Central administration, fiscal and judicial systems
With regard to the organization of the central administration of the conquered country, King William largely followed Anglo-Saxon traditions. Although at his court there were the positions of steward, butler, and chamberlain, borrowed from the French administration, they had mainly honorary functions. An important innovation was the establishment of the post of chancellor in the city, responsible for organizing the king's office work. The Great Royal Council, in which all the barons of the country took part, was the successor to the Anglo-Saxon Witenagemot. In the early Norman period, it began to meet regularly (three times a year), but lost a significant part of its influence on the development of political decisions, giving way to the royal curia (lat. Curia regis). The latter institution was a meeting of the barons and officials closest to the king, helping the monarch with advice on current problems of the state. The Curia became the central element of the royal administration, although its meetings were often informal.
The basic principles of the fiscal system did not change after the Norman Conquest. Financing of the royal administration continued to be based on revenues from domain lands (the annual income of which was more than 11 thousand pounds sterling), payments from cities and income from legal proceedings. These sources were supplemented by receipts of a feudal nature (relief, guardianship rights, formalities). The practice of imposing a general tax on the population (“Danish money”) was continued, and the consent of the population to collect this tax was not required. The principles of distribution of taxes among counties, hundreds and guides have also been preserved since Anglo-Saxon times. To bring traditional tax rates into line with the modern state of the economy and the new system of land holdings, a general assessment of lands was carried out in the city, the results of which were presented in the “Domesday Book”.
After the Norman Conquest, which was accompanied by massive abuses and illegal seizures of land, the importance of legal proceedings increased sharply, becoming an instrument of royal power in regulating land and social relations in the country. In the reorganization of the judicial system, Geoffroy, Bishop of Coutances, and Archbishop Lanfranc played an important role. A division of secular and ecclesiastical jurisdiction was carried out, a harmonious system of judicial bodies was created, and baronial courts arose. An important innovation was the widespread use of trial by jury, the origins of which can be traced both to Norman practice and to the traditions of the Danelaw.
Meaning
IN socially The Norman conquest led to the destruction of the Anglo-Saxon military-service nobility (thegns) and the formation of a new dominant layer of feudal knighthood, built on the principles of vassal-feudal relations and possessing judicial and administrative power over the peasant population. The semi-independent earls of the Anglo-Saxon era were replaced by Norman barons, highly dependent on the king and obliged him for their possessions with knightly duties (fielding a certain number of armed knights). The higher clergy was also included in the feudal system. The process of enslavement of the peasantry, which began in the Anglo-Saxon period, accelerated sharply and led to the dominance of feudal-dependent categories of the peasantry in medieval England, which led to even greater enslavement. It should be noted the almost complete disappearance of slavery in England.
The most important consequence of the Norman conquest in the social sphere was the introduction in England of classical feudal relations and the vassal-feudal system on the French model. The genesis of feudalism in England began in the centuries, but the emergence of a social system based on land holding, which is determined by the holder’s performance of strictly defined military duties, the scope of which depended not on the size of the plot, but on the agreement with the overlord, is an unconditional innovation of the Norman Conquest. The pronounced military nature of the land holdings also became one of the main consequences of the Norman conquest. In general, the social structure of society has become more strict, rigid and hierarchical.
IN organizational plan The Norman Conquest led to a dramatic strengthening of royal power and the formation of one of the most durable and centralized monarchies in Europe during the High Middle Ages. The power of royal power is clearly demonstrated by the conduct of a general census of land holdings, the results of which were included in the Book of the Last Judgment, an enterprise unprecedented and absolutely impossible in other modern European states. The new state system, although based on Anglo-Saxon management traditions, quickly acquired a high degree of specialization and the formation of functional government bodies, such as the Checkerboard Chamber, the Treasury, the Chancellery and others.
IN culturally The Norman Conquest introduced the feudal culture of chivalry into England based on its French models. Old English was forced out of the sphere of government, and the Norman dialect of French became the language of administration and communication of the dominant social strata. For about three hundred years, the Anglo-Norman dialect dominated the country and had a great influence on the formation of modern English.
IN politically The self-isolation of the country, which was in the Anglo-Saxon era, ended. England found itself closely included in the system of international relations of Western Europe and began to play one of the most important roles on the European political scene. Moreover, William the Conqueror, who linked the Kingdom of England with the Duchy of Normandy through a personal union, became the powerful ruler of Northwestern Europe, completely changing the balance of power in this region. At the same time, the fact that Normandy was a vassal of the King of France, and many of the new English barons and knights owned lands across the English Channel, sharply complicated Anglo-French relations. As dukes of Normandy, the Anglo-Norman monarchs recognized the suzerainty of the king of France, and as kings of England they had equal social status with him. In the 12th century, with the creation of the Angevin Plantagenet Empire, the English king owned almost half of the territory of France, remaining legally a vassal of the French monarch. This duality became one of the reasons for the long Anglo-French confrontation, which was one of the central moments of European politics in the Middle Ages and reached its culmination during the Hundred Years' War.
see also
Comments
Notes
- All the wars of world history. Book 2. 1000-1500 - M.: AST, 2004. - P. 15-22.
- Douglas D. Wilgelm the conqueror. - P. 417.
- The Age of the Crusades / edited by E. Lavisse and A. Rambaud. - M.: AST, 2005. - P. 683-690.
- Jones G. Vikings. Descendants of Odin and Thor. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2004. - P. 377-379, 387-389.
- Douglas D.C. Normans from conquests to achievements. - St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2003. - pp. 55-56.
- Douglas D. Wilgelm the conqueror. - pp. 206-210, 220.
- Jewett S. O. Norman Conquest. - Minsk: Harvest, 2003. - P. 230.
- Jones G. Vikings. Descendants of Odin and Thor. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2004. - P. 437-438.
- Norman A.V.B. Medieval warrior. Weapons from the times of Charlemagne and the Crusades. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2008. - P. 104-105.
- Saxons, Vikings, Normans. - Artemovsk: Soldier, 2002. - P. 9.
- Norman A.V.B. Medieval warrior. Weapons from the times of Charlemagne and the Crusades. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2008. - P. 106-112, 115.
- Almanac “New Soldier” No. 88. Saxons, Vikings, Normans. - Artemovsk: Soldier, 2002. - P. 31-32.
- Jewett S. O. Norman Conquest. - Minsk: Harvest, 2003. - P. 234.
- Devries K. Great battles of the Middle Ages. 1000-1500. - M.: Eksmo, 2007. - pp. 23-26.
- Douglas D.C. Normans from conquests to achievements. - St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2003. - pp. 126-129.
- Douglas D. Wilgelm the conqueror. - pp. 154-155, 159-161.
- Douglas D. Wilgelm the conqueror. - P. 232.
- The greatest battles of the Middle Ages. Collection. - M.: Eksmo, 2009. - P. 163, 168-171.
- Douglas D. Wilgelm the conqueror. - pp. 235-240.
- Douglas D.C. Normans from conquests to achievements. - St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2003. - pp. 77-79.
- The greatest battles of the Middle Ages. Collection. - M.: Eksmo, 2009. - P. 168-171.
- Douglas D. Wilgelm the conqueror. - pp. 247-249.
- Jewett S. O. Norman Conquest. - Minsk: Harvest, 2003. - P. 257-258.
- Douglas D. Wilgelm the conqueror. - P. 251-252.
- Jewett S. O. Norman Conquest. - Minsk: Harvest, 2003. - P. 265-267.
- Douglas D.C. Normans from conquests to achievements. - St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2003. - pp. 81-83.
- Douglas D. Wilgelm the conqueror. - pp. 259-261.
- Jones G. Vikings. Descendants of Odin and Thor. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2004. - P. 442.
- Douglas D. Wilgelm the conqueror. - pp. 266-269.
- Douglas D.C. Normans from conquests to achievements. - St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2003. - pp. 110-111.
- History of the Middle Ages / edited by N. F. Kolesnitsky. - M.: Education, 1986.
- Douglas D. Wilgelm the conqueror. - pp. 270-271.
- Douglas D.C. Normans from conquests to achievements. - St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2003. - P. 129.
- Douglas D. Wilgelm the conqueror. - P. 305.
- Jewett S. O. Norman Conquest. - Minsk: Harvest, 2003. - P. 259-260.
- Douglas D.C. Normans from conquests to achievements. - St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2003. - P. 168.
- Douglas D.C. Normans from conquests to achievements. - St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2003. - pp. 249-251.
- Douglas D. Wilgelm the conqueror. - P. 365.
- Stringholm A. Viking campaigns. - M.: AST, 2002. - P. 181.
- The Age of the Crusades / edited by E. Lavisse and A. Rambaud. - M.: AST, 2005. - P. 745-746.
- Harper's Encyclopedia of Military History Dupuis R. E. and Dupuis T. N. All the wars of world history. Book 2. 1000-1500 - M.: AST, 2004. - P. 24.
- Douglas D. Wilgelm the conqueror. - pp. 338-339.
- Douglas D.C. Normans from conquests to achievements. - St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2003. - P. 155.
- Douglas D.C. Normans from conquests to achievements. - St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2003. - pp. 203-206.
- The Age of the Crusades / edited by E. Lavisse and A. Rambaud. - M.: AST, 2005. - P. 741-743.
England by the middle of the 11th century. In the history of England, few events can compare in importance to those that took place in the second half of the 11th century, the most striking, dramatic and catastrophic episode of which was the Battle of Hastings. “To punish the people of the Angles,” writes one pious author of the 12th century, “God planned a double attack against them: on the one hand, he organized an invasion of the Danes, on the other, he aroused the machinations of the Normans, so that the Angles, even if they got rid of the Danes, did not could have eluded the Normans."
It is worth recalling that the British Isles turned out to be a tasty morsel for many conquerors: in the middle of the 5th century, as soon as the last legions of the Romans left them, Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons and Jutes began to move there in waves from the coast of the North Sea and Jutland. Over the course of two or three centuries, they settled there properly, slowly, but they began to understand the importance of uniting into one kingdom. But then new conquerors and robbers descended from the northeast, most of all from Denmark - they were called “people of the north,” the Normans. From the end of the 8th century. until the middle of the 11th century. they haunted the whole of Europe, and most of all, Britain. Our pious author is precisely talking about the last stage of the struggle for it in the early medieval period.
Duchy of Normandy. And the knights of the Duchy of Normandy took advantage of these circumstances, i.e. Normans, descendants of the same “people of the north”. Once upon a time, at the beginning of the 10th century, they landed from their military robber boats at the mouth of the Seine River, in northwestern France. And they began to rob and burn all of France. They did not spare temples, villages, cities. They shed a lot of blood because, among other things, they remained pagans.
The King of France realized that they could not be defeated by war, entered into negotiations, and ceded them lands in the north-west. They began to be called Normandy. Having mixed with the local population, the ferocious Normans quickly adopted Christianity, mastered the French language and customs, culture, and after a few generations turned into real Frenchmen. They built castles in the country, introduced feudal orders, began to be proud of their nobility, and were reborn. But they remained the best warriors in Europe.
William. The Normans established relations with England back in the 10th century, when they began to serve the Anglo-Saxon kings at their invitation. In the middle of the 11th century. William became Duke of Normandy. He embodied the typical characteristics of a Norman. The Duke was of heroic build and strength, so that no one but him could pull his bow. He was considered the best fighter in his own army. And at the same time - a skillful commander, cold-blooded, prudent, brave. The circumstances of his life - the fact that he was the natural son of the Duke of Normandy - strengthened his character. He had known Harold, the future king of England, for a long time.
Anglo-Saxon dwelling
noble person
Childless Edward the Confessor. At that time, Edward the Confessor ruled in England. He had no children, and even during his lifetime it became clear that the situation with a candidacy for the royal throne was not simple. In England of his time, it was customary that in such cases the name of the successor should be named by the king himself or his Council of the Wise, which included the most noble and authoritative persons of the state.
Many believed that the king would name his wife's brother Harold, Earl of Wessex, as heir. He was a brave and experienced warrior, a strong man, quite capable of great government activities. But another possible contender for the royal crown emerged - the above-mentioned Duke of Normandy, William. He belonged to a not very close, but blood relative of King Edward on his mother’s side, and was the king’s second cousin. True, as the illegitimate son of the Norman Duke, William did not have, in the concepts of medieval society, and by virtue of tradition, the same full rights as heirs born in marriage. But Edward, according to the Norman chronicles, promised the crown to William 15 years before his death.
Harold's oath to William. Harold and William themselves further confused the circumstances for historians. The fact is that Harold, for unknown reasons, went to Normandy, his ship was wrecked, and he was captured by one of the noble feudal lords. Wilhelm immediately rescued him from captivity. Moreover, he invited me to stay in Normandy and show knightly prowess in the next campaign against neighboring Brittany. They lived in perfect harmony, slept in the same tent, and did not part for days on end.
One of his contemporary chroniclers says that William once addressed Harold with the following speech: “Once upon a time, King Edward of England and I lived under the same roof and he promised to make me his successor. I want you, Harold, to help me with this, and then I will do for you whatever you ask."
Harold was taken by surprise. William persuaded him to give up one of the castles in England, marry his sister, William, and leave a hostage. Harold was forced to agree.
After this conversation, they returned to William's castle, in the city of Bayeux. There, William ordered to collect all the holy relics that were in churches and monasteries, and hid them under a table covered with a brocade tablecloth. And he put the Gospel on the table, on which all the oaths were taken then. Then he ordered all his barons, as vassals were then called, to gather for a meeting. In front of everyone, he again turned to Harold and asked him to confirm with an oath his promise to help in obtaining the crown of England. He repeated his words, holding out his hands to the Gospel. After which William threw back the tablecloth and showed that Harold swore at the same time on the holy relics, that is, he made the most terrible oath that could not be broken. Harold's face changed at the sight of this and trembled with horror.
Edward names Harold the new king. When he returned to England and told everything to King Edward, he sadly hung his head. His life was quickly coming to an end. In January 1066 he fell ill, his tongue refused to obey, everyone was afraid that he would not be able to name the successor. But he managed to point to Harold and say his name.
According to tradition, the general meeting, for its part, was supposed to indicate a new king. Almost everyone was for the same Harold, but two northern regions - Mercia and Northumberland - refused to recognize him. The country was divided into parts. And this was the beginning of great troubles.
William in Normandy said that Harold's betrayal saddened him.
William addresses the Pope. He thought through his actions a long time ago. And he immediately turned to the Pope and began to ask him which of them - he or Harold - has the right to become king, if King Edward bequeathed the crown to him, and Harold swore an oath to help. The Pope issued a bull in which he declared Harold an illegitimate king, and blessed William to fight. Along with the bull, he was sent from Rome a consecrated banner and an expensive ring, under the diamond stone of which a precious relic was placed - the hair of the Apostle Peter himself, the founder of the Roman church.
William gathers an army. After this, William sends out invitations to his vassals. In Normandy, each major feudal lord was obliged, in case of conscription, to provide the king with a certain number of knights - most often from 20 to 30 - to serve for 40 days a year. But...only within Normandy. Convincing them to provide people for a dangerous overseas campaign was not so easy. Wilhelm had to promise a worthy reward, land, and booty. Moreover, he begged nobles, merchants, and clergy to equip ships or give money for the expedition.
He recorded all donations in a special list. This document has been preserved. Among the names are, for example, the Count d'Evreux, who built more than 80 ships with his own money, or Roger de Montgomery, who equipped 60. These were stable longboats with one sail. Almost 3 thousand horses and at least 7 thousand warriors were placed on them.
At the same time, William turned to the ordinary nobility and nobility of France. And he began to gather an army. The Norman knighthood was joined by the Duke's vassals from Maine and Anjou, volunteers from Brittany, Poitou, Aquitaine and Burgundy, Flanders, Champagne and even from Italy. Many wanted to have lands in England, as well as castles, cities, and salary.
In the spring and summer, ships were built and equipped in all the harbors of Normandy. Norman peasants and artisans worked tirelessly. Blacksmiths and gunsmiths made spears, swords, chain mail, and axes.
Finally going camping! The gathering place was declared to be the mouth of the Diva River, from where it was most convenient to cross the English Channel. Researchers believe that there were from 400 to 700 ships and 7 thousand people, half of them knights, half foot soldiers. For almost a month, the nasty wind made it impossible to sail. But on September 27, 1066, the sun appeared, and all the ships moved to the sea. “A whole forest of masts” moved behind Wilhelm’s ship.
The longest campaign since Roman times began, which lasted 7 months and became the most significant military operation since Roman times. Three lions were painted on the sails of William's ship, i.e. coat of arms of Normandy.
Harold is preparing for war. Harold in England understood that William would not leave him alone. The spies informed him of the danger. Moreover, at the end of April a comet with a long tail appeared, which seemed to the superstitious warriors a bad omen. He was preparing for war. But his army was worse organized than the knights of the continent. In addition, it consisted of many foot militia from peasants who yearned for home and farming and were not as prepared as the knights. And Harold didn’t have very many warriors, although each of them was a first-class and seasoned warrior.
Harold defeats the Norwegians. There was one more circumstance against Harold: his brother agreed with the king of Norway for help in the war with his brother.
Harold found himself between two fires. Wilhelm threatened from the south, and his brother and the Norwegians from the north. Harold decided to carry out a lightning operation against the Norwegians and return to the south. He managed to defeat the Norwegians. The brother fell on the battlefield. The remnants of the defeated Norwegian army sailed back.
William lands in the south of England. Harold was celebrating his victory with friends when a messenger appeared on October 1 and brought terrible news: William had landed in the south of England. No one prevented his landing three days earlier - on September 28. Warriors were unloaded from ships and boats. First - the arrows. Then the horsemen. They were wearing armor and helmets. The Normans even brought with them the frames of three wooden castles.
Wilhelm was one of the last to jump to the ground and, slipping, fell. The superstitious warriors began to whisper. But William, with his characteristic resourcefulness, joyfully cried out: “Why are you afraid? I now hold the land of England with both hands!”
Without shedding a single drop of the blood of his soldiers, William walked along the old Roman road to the town of Hastings, where his soldiers quickly began to set up tents and tents and fortify their camp. They also put up locks in which they stored supplies.
To frighten the population, William ordered the soldiers to collect supplies, rob, destroy houses, and burn villages. Soon he received news of Harold and his victory in the north. Wilhelm sent a monk to him to remind him of the oath. But Harold did not listen to the monk. Then the monk, by order of William, declared: “The Duke declares you a perjurer and a liar. Know that everyone who supports you is excommunicated from the church, about which there is a bull from the Pope.”
Harold prepares to fight William. Harold hoped to put an end to the Normans as quickly as the Norwegians. He led his army to a hill, located 7 kilometers from William’s camp. Harold's army could have had about the same number of warriors as William's, or perhaps fewer - from 4 to 7 thousand people.
The main difference between the armies was that the English consisted exclusively of foot soldiers, while the Normans consisted partly of foot soldiers and partly of cavalry. As a result, Harold could not choose level ground for battle. And therefore he chose a wide hill that covered his tightly lined troops. The place also had the advantage that there were rather steep slopes behind it, and in the middle there was a narrow ravine that led into the forest. In case of defeat, Harold's warriors could descend from the slopes and flee into the forest, and it would not be so easy for the Norman horsemen to pursue them.
Harold puts up a "shield wall". Harold chose his position skillfully. He strengthened it with a ditch. On the central part of the hill was himself and the best warriors. He managed to form the famous Saxon “shield wall” - a military formation in which the combatants took up a perimeter defense, standing shoulder to shoulder and tightly closing their shields. In the center of this wall stood approximately 2 thousand selected warriors and bodyguards of Harold and there were two banners. One depicted a Dragon, the other a Warrior.
The battle plan was clearly outlined: Harold was blocking William's path and his army had to stand motionless, like a rock against which the waves break.
October 14. On the day of St. Callixtus, October 14, a battle broke out. At 9 a.m. the Normans launched their first attack. William's court poet rode forward and began to militantly sing the lines of the "Song of Roland", throwing and catching a heavy sword in flight. And the Normans chimed in: “God, help us, God, help us.” Approaching Harold's warriors, he knocked down two of them and immediately fell under the blows of the others. Thus began the battle. The Normans advanced on the hill in a wide front, having all three types of warriors: horsemen, spearmen and archers. On the first line were archers and crossbowmen, in the next line were heavily armed infantry and behind them were mounted knights. William was in the center and next to him was the papal banner as a sign that the campaign was pleasing to God.
The Norman skirmishers fired a hail of arrows, and under their cover, heavily armed infantrymen climbed the hills, trying to break through the ranks of Harold's warriors. The advantage of archers was their numbers and the range of their arrows. But the Anglo-Saxons were on the top of the hill and were shooting from above, and they were shooting from below. Mounted warriors mixed with foot soldiers began to storm the hill. A terrible battle began to boil in the hills. But the advantage of the position of Harold’s warriors was so great, and the strength of the cavalry was so weakened by the slopes that Harold’s warriors held firm, fighting back with axes, spears, and arrows. No one flinched, no one retreated.
Some of the Normans were knocked down the hill, while others, unable to break through, retreated down on their own. The battle seemed lost. But William and his companions were preparing for the next attack. William personally led the soldiers. The attack turned out to be even more fierce. William himself fought in the front ranks; two horses were killed under him. When the first horse fell, he jumped on the other and shouted: “Look at me! I am alive and by the grace of God I will be a winner.” It is believed that he struck one of Harold's brothers with his hand. Then his second brother fell too. But the Anglo-Saxon warriors stood firm.
Then Wilhelm came up with a cunning plan: to lure the enemies out from behind the fortification and collapse from all sides. The third attack began. As chroniclers report, again the entire mass of his army hit the fence, and after a short battle, the left wing, as planned by William, moved back strongly. Harold's warriors could not resist. Carried away by success, they rushed after the enemy. Instantly, part of William’s army surrounded them below, while the other rushed upward and broke through the fence left unprotected.
On the hill where Harold was, a terrible battle began again. Without respite, the warriors fought for almost the whole day. And they were already starting to get tired. And William came up with a new trick: he ordered his soldiers to shoot arrows upward, a hail of arrows fell on Harold’s soldiers from the sky, chipped their helmets, wounded their heads, necks, and arms.
Someone's arrow hit Harold himself right in the face, and he fell to the foot of the banner. A terrible massacre unfolded around the fallen king. Four Normans, in the ecstasy of battle, mocked the dead body. After the battle, the mutilated body was buried in an unknown place. Wilhelm obviously did everything to ensure that no memories of Harold remained.
End of the battle. As one of the most famous researchers of medieval battles, the German historian Hans Delbrück, writes, the strength of the Anglo-Saxons was in defense, but defense alone cannot win battles. Harold's warriors were supposed to go on the offensive, but they did not have enough strength to do so.
The battle was lost. But the battle continued; Harold's warriors fought alone. No one ran, did not ask for mercy, and every single one was cut down by the swords of William's knights. They pursued their opponents even in the dark. Only deep night put an end to the massacre. The place itself still bears the laconic name “place of battle.”
William is crowned on Christmas Day. Wilhelm did not soon lay down his arms; more than once he met heroic resistance. But he achieved the main thing: four months later, on December 25, 1066, on Christmas Day, the coronation was held. William became the rightful king of England. Thus began a new, Norman period in its history.
There are few pages in English history as dramatic as Harold's nine-month reign. But there are even fewer battles like the Battle of Hastings, which truly became a turning point in the history of the country. Some call these events the "final invasion." William rewarded his associates as promised. Every four out of five villages fell to the Normans and their allies. Everyone who settled in England was considered the king's vassals and had to serve him faithfully. About 250 of the king's largest and most noble associates swore allegiance to him and their readiness to bring their troops, as they did during the conquest of England.
William accelerated England's steps towards feudalism, which allowed it to catch up with France, and then overtake it. Wilhelm made the state strong, subjugated the barons, carried out a census of lands and farms, and streamlined taxes. England was rapidly entering a new era. The times of William's reign were called the times of "Norman slavery". But time has ground everything, the Normans mixed with the Anglo-Saxons, two centuries later parliament, English freedom, and many English traditions related to the recognition and protection of individual rights were born.
Carpet from Bayeux. William's half-brother, the bishop of the city of Bayeux, a participant in the campaign, rewarded as generously as the others, decided to perpetuate William's victory: at his order, craftsmen and craftswomen, most likely from the county of Kent, embroidered a carpet with scenes of the preparation of the campaign, the crossing of soldiers, battles on hills, which allows you to very vividly imagine ships, weapons, and details of battles, is a unique artistic source. A wonderful embroidery 70 meters long, made with colored wool threads, has been preserved and is now located in a special room, which has become a museum of one carpet - the Bayeux Tapestry.
The series of embroidered scenes begins with the image of a conversation between old sad Edward and Harold on the eve of his sailing for Normandy, and ends with an image of his motionless body lying near the banner. The last “paintings” have been torn off the carpet. It is possible that William was represented at them, kneeling on the same hill and thanking God for the victory. You can’t say anything, he stumbled on a low bank in order to forever establish himself in a high place of royal power.
After the battle, William founded the monastery of Battle (literally - “battle”), the main altar of which was erected on the very spot where Harold died. And four years later, the decision of the council of bishops imposed on the soldiers the requirement of mandatory repentance of the cities.
Anglo-Saxon conquest. Viking invasion.
1. The end of Roman rule. Roman rule over Britain ended in 410 AD. Experiencing constant raids from the east (Central European barbarians (especially the Visigoths and Vandals) and Asian nomads (particularly the Huns)), the Roman Empire was unable to control its outlying western territories. In 410, by decree of the Emperor Honorius, Roman rule over Great Britain was ended. 66 years later, in 476, the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist.
In the same century, regular invasions of Great Britain by new conquerors from the continent - the Anglo-Saxons - began.
2. Wars between the Anglo-Saxons and Celts. Anglo-Saxons - collective name. These tribes invaded Britain from what is now Germany. They included:
Ø the Angles (the Angles) from the Old Upper. and Old English angul'fishing hook';
Ø the Saxons (the Saxons) from the ancient Upper. sahsun, Wed Old English seax‘combat knife, dagger’;
Ø jutes (the Jutes) from Old Scand. Iotar, whose etymology is unknown;
Ø friezes (the Frisians) from Frisian frisle'curly hair'.
The most powerful and influential among these tribes were the Angles and Saxons. They gave the name to the new people - the Anglo-Saxons, which began to take shape under their leadership over many centuries.
The Anglo-Saxons, who had low culture and military superiority, entered into an irreconcilable conflict with the more cultured, but unaccustomed to wars, Celtic-Roman population. Most of the Celtic-Roman population was physically exterminated, their property was plundered, and many were enslaved. In the V-VI centuries. The Celtic population waged a heroic struggle against the Anglo-Saxon conquerors. The folk epic about the semi-legendary king of the Celts dates back to this time. Arthur (etymology: 1) from Welsh arth‘bear’ + ur→ ‘bear man’ or 2) Greek. star names Arcturus‘guardian of the bear’), one of the leaders of the resistance. Later these events were reflected in the work “The Knights of the Round Table”.
3. The emergence of Anglo-Saxon early feudal states. Despite almost 200 years of heroic resistance by the Celts, the Anglo-Saxons won. Part of the Celtic population was assimilated, part was destroyed, part fled to Scotland and Wales Wylisc'foreign; slave' in West Saxon dialect).
Seven feudal states gradually arose on the territory of Great Britain (V-VII centuries) under the leadership of the Anglo-Saxons:
Ø Wessex (Wessex = west+seax) - West Saxons. The largest and most militarily powerful;
Ø Essex (Essex = east+seax) – East Saxons;
Ø Sussex (Sussex = suþ+seax) – South Saxons;
Ø Kent (Kent from lat. сanticum‘coastal region’ or ‘land of troops or army’) – Jutes;
Ø Mercia (Mercia from the Latinized Old English. mierce‘border dwellers’) – Angles;
Ø East Anglia – Angles;
Ø Northumbria (Northumbria – translated as “north of Umbria” (from lat. Humbri fluminis(the name of an ancient river, and now this is the name of a region in northern Italy)) - Angles.
The most powerful kingdom was Wessex
with its capital in Winchester
(Winchester ← Old English. U(W)intancæstir from Celt. Gwent "
place of trade ,
market "
and Old English ceaster
'Roman city'). King of Wessex Egbert
from Old English Ecg-beorht verbatim ‘glittering like a sword’ ← ecg'sword' and beorht‘bright, sparkling’ )(771 – 839)
united the remaining six Anglo-Saxon states under the rule of Wessex by military force and diplomacy. The final unification took place in 829
during the reign of the king Athelstan, King of all Britain
from Old English Æðelstane verbatim ‘noble stone’ ← Æðel'noble; majestic’+ stane'stone' )
(894 – 939).
The new state was named England
named after the largest tribe. The capital of a single state became the city of Winchester (it remained so until
XI century). Since 597, the Anglo-Saxons gradually began to accept Christianity.
It should be noted that England was not the only state on the territory of Great Britain. At the same time, another state was formed in the north of the island - Scotland , differing in culture and organization of life. It was based on Celts and constantly arriving Scandinavian tribes(mostly modern Norwegians and Danes). Statehood and strong cultural identity have been preserved kimry living in what is now Wales.
4. Viking invasion of England. From 793, new conquerors began to make regular raids on the British Isles - Vikings (vikings from Old Norse vikingr‘one who came from a fjord (a narrow, winding sea bay with rocky shores cut deep into the land)’ ← vik‘small bay, narrow sea bay’; ancestors of modern Norwegians) and are given (danes from 1) Old High German tanar‘sandy shore’ or 2) protoherm. *den-'lowland'; in England this was the name given to all Scandinavians). In the 870s East Anglia was already completely conquered by the Vikings. This area became known as Danelaw (Danelagh, "Area of Danish Law"). The Vikings established their own laws in this territory. In England at that time, King Ethelred (Ethelread the Foolish from Old English) ruled. Æðelræd verbatim ‘titled advisor’ ← æðele'noble; noble, titled’ + ræd, red'advice'; reigned from 865 to 871). He allowed conflicts with the Vikings, which resulted in the loss of many territories. England was on the verge of collapse as an independent state.
During this troubled time for ancient England, a king came to power Alfred the Great (Alfred the Great from Old English elf‘elf’ + ræd, red‘council’) (years of reign – 871-899 ), who is considered the first English prominent monarch and reformer. His achievements:
Ø negotiated peace with the Vikings (England began to pay them tribute, as a result of which the Viking aggression was stopped, which, in turn, saved England from death and made it possible to gather strength);
Ø used the respite in the war with the Vikings to build fortresses and ships;
Ø became the founder of the British Navy;
Ø was the first to strive to expand England’s international contacts, to overcome its island isolation from the rest of Europe (“opened a window” to continental Europe for England);
Ø contributed to the emergence and development of international maritime trade (before this, trade took place mainly within the island);
Ø actively encouraged the dissemination of knowledge, culture, science;
Ø participated in the compilation of the Anglo-Saxon chronicle (chronicle);
Ø created a code of laws King Alfred's Code , or Alfred's Laws), the most important source of law in England at that time, as opposed to Danelaw.
Under Alfred the Great, England became so strong that its military conquest by the Vikings became impossible. The Vikings were finally defeated and expelled from England after 150 years under King Edward the Confessor from Old English Eadweard verbatim ‘guardian of prosperity, wealth’ ← ead'wealth; prosperity’ + weard‘guardian’), who reigned from 1042 to 1066. Edward the Confessor, the penultimate Anglo-Saxon king of England, paid great attention to the promotion of Christian virtues and asceticism (his life's work was the founding of Westminster Abbey), for which he was later canonized and is currently revered as a saint of the Catholic Church. Due to the fact that at that time saints were usually divided into two groups: martyrs who died a violent death for the faith, and confessors who died an ordinary death, the king received the nickname “Confessor” (died on January 5, 1066 in Westminster).
5. Norman conquest of England. The Norman conquest of England, which began in 1066, and the subsequent 300-year (with short interruptions) French domination had the strongest (after the Romans) influence on the formation of modern Great Britain, its government structure, language, and culture.
Almost immediately after the overthrow of 150 years of Viking rule, the British Isles were attacked by a new aggressor - Normans (the Normans from Old French Normand‘northern man’).
Normandy - a medieval feudal state entity (duchy), which was located on the territory of modern Northern France (on the other side of the English Channel (from the French 'sleeve', the English Channel)). Normandy at that time was characterized by:
Ø very strong state power;
Ø developed feudal relations;
Ø military power.
In 1066, the well-armed and disciplined army of the Norman ruler William the Conqueror from Old English willan‘to wish’ + helma'helmet' ) landed on the British Isles.
At the historic Battle of Hastings on October 10, 1066, the English army was defeated by the Normans. The King of England died in battle Harold (Harold from Old English hergian'fight; to devastate, to plunder’ + weldan‘to compel, to subdue’, the last Anglo-Saxon king, successor to Edward the Confessor) and key military leaders. England lost its independence for 300 years.
Norman rule was established in England. William the Conqueror was crowned King of England at the end of 1066 and occupied the throne for 21 years.
(1066 – 1087). The Norman Conquest led to significant changes in the political and economic systems of England:
Ø a very strong (the strongest in Europe) royal power was established:
· the king (William the Conqueror) was declared the owner of all lands - a rare case in Europe, where the owners of lands (entire provinces) were feudal lords equal in status to the king;
· land was given only for service to the king;
· the role of feudal lords (from lat. feudum‘land granted for service’), compared to the rest of Europe, was significantly less (they were not sovereigns (persons with supreme power), but only servants of the king);
· in contrast to the European principle “my vassal’s vassal is not my vassal” (from Old French. vassal‘subordinate, servant’; this principle assumes that everyone at his own level of the feudal hierarchy was an absolute master),” in England, vassals of vassals were also vassals (servants of the king);
· traditions of veneration and recognition of the absolute sovereignty of the English monarch were established (he was not “first among equals”, like other European monarchs);
Ø rigid feudal relations are finally consolidated (including legally), class hierarchy based on inequality:
· in 1086, William the Conqueror conducted a general census of the population and lands, the results of which were recorded in a special book, popularly called "Book of the Last Judgment"
(Domesday Book); the census was carried out very harshly - the death penalty was imposed for refusal to participate in it or concealment of information;
· the population was taxed;
· according to the census results (and entries in the book) only about 10% of the population remained free;
· 90% of the population received dependent status of various levels(10% are completely powerless slaves ( serfs, from Old French. ‘slave, servant’), about 40% are serfs ( villeins, from Old French. ‘peasant, farmer’),
30% are formally free, but poor and dependent landowners ( cotters from English cottage verbatim ‘a small house with a small plot of land’ ← old French. cote‘hut, small house’),
10% are wealthy dependent peasants).
For almost the entire medieval period, a clear manor system. Manor (from Old French. manoir‘dwelling, house, place of residence’, feudal estate received for service to the king) became the main unit of society. Economic and social life developed around the manor:
Ø headed the manor lord (lord from Old English hlaford‘lord, ruler; owner, owner of the estate’ ← hlafweard verbatim ‘the one who guards, protects the bread’ from hlaf‘bread, loaf’ +wear‘holder, custodian’), most often baron (from Old French. baron'aristocrat; warrior, military leader; husband’ ← from lat. baro‘man’), who received land from the king for service (often military) and was subordinate to the king;
Ø then came the smaller feudal lords - knights (knights from Old English cniht‘boy, young man; servant, assistant’), who received land from the lord, obeyed both the lord and the king; knights (both in organizing the economy and in case of war) had to act together with their lord (the knights made up the lord’s “team”);
Ø after the lord and knights in the hierarchy there were free people who settled around the manor (artisans, merchants, wealthy peasants); they provided communication between the manor and other manors, as well as trade and craft services for the manor;
Ø at the next stage - serfs, administratively assigned to the manor, who were supposed to work for the lord (they were, as it were, part of the manor as a property - the manor was issued by the king at the same time as the peasants);
Ø at the very bottom of the feudal ladder - completely unfree slaves (usually captives, criminals, hopeless debtors), who, as a rule, performed a service function.
After Wilhelm's death
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2000 BC |
Iberians in Britain |
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OK. 700-200 BC |
Migration of the Celts (Gaels, Brents, Belgaes) |
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55-54 BC |
Caesar's campaigns in Britain |
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Conquest of Britain by the Romans |
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Roman legions leave Britain |
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Anglo-Saxon conquest |
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The beginning of the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons |
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King Ine of Wessex |
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King Offa of Mercia |
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The end of the VIII-IX centuries. |
Norman (Danish) raids |
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Unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms under Wessex |
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2nd half 9th century |
Wars with the Danes |
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Alfred the Great |
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Peace of Wedmore (with the Danes) |
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Subordination to Areas of Danish Law |
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Ethelred |
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Canute the Great. Danish conquest of England |
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Strife. End of Danish rule |
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Edward the Confessor |
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Norman conquest of England |
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Rebellion in the North of England |
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"Book of the Last Judgment" |
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Wilhelm the Red |
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Baronial Troubles |
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Henry II Plantagenet |
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Plantagenet Dynasty |
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Richard the Lionheart |
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Rise of William Longbeard in London |
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John the Landless |
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Pope Innocent III |
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War with France |
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Battle of Buvin |
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"Magna Carta" |
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Henry III |
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Civil War |
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Convening of the first parliament |
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The struggle for control of Scotland |
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Conflict with the barons |
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Edward II |
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Edward III |
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John Unclef |
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English defeat in Scotland |
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Hundred Years' War with France |
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Battle of Sluys |
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Battle of Crecy |
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Capture of Calais |
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"Black Death" |
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"Ordinance on Workers and Servants" |
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Battle of Poitiers |
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Peasant revolt of the Jacquerie in France |
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Richard II |
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Wat Tyler's Rebellion |
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Henry IV Lancaster |
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Statute “On the burning of heretics” |
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John Oldcastle Movement |
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Henry V Lancaster |
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Treaty of Troyes |
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Henry VI Lancaster |
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Burning of Joan of Arc |
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The Rise of Jack Cad |
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Wars of the Roses |
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Battle of St. Albans |
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Edward IV of York |
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Richard III |
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Battle of Bosworth |
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Henry VII Tudor |
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Henry VIII Tudor |
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The beginning of the reformation. "Act of Supremacy". |
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Execution of Thomas More |
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"Pilgrimage of Grace" |
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Edward VI Tudor |
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The Rebellion of Robert Ket |
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Mary Tudor |
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Wyeth's Rebellion |
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Elizabeth I Tudor |
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William Shakespeare |
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Uprising in the North |
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Anglo-Spanish War |
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Execution of Mary Stuart |
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The defeat of the "invincible Armada" |
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Rebellion in Ireland |
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Essex Conspiracy and Execution |
Chapter IV. The Norman Conquest of England and its consequences
V. V. Shtokmar. History of England in the Middle Ages
Norman Conquest
Normandy was in the middle of the 11th century. a country that had reached the full flowering of feudal relations. This was reflected primarily in its military superiority: the Duke was the head of the heavily armed knightly cavalry of his vassals, and the large incomes received by the sovereign of Normandy from his possessions, and in particular from the cities, allowed him to have his own excellent military detachments. The duchy had better internal organization than England and a strong central government, which controlled both the feudal lords and the church. Hearing about the death of Edward the Confessor, William sent envoys to Harold in England demanding a vassal oath and at the same time declared everywhere that Harold was a usurper and an oathbreaker. William appealed to Pope Alexander II, accusing Harold of breaking his oath and asking the pope to bless William's invasion of England. 50-60s of the 11th century. - an era of great change in the history of the Catholic Church in Western Europe. The Clunians, supporters of the reform, achieved a victory that marked the internal strengthening of the church (the ban on simony - receiving church positions from secular sovereigns, the celibacy of the clergy, the election of the pope by the college of cardinals). This victory meant both the assertion of the independence of the papacy from secular power and the beginning of the struggle of the popes to strengthen their political influence in Europe, and ultimately for the subordination of secular sovereigns to the authority of the papal throne. In this situation, the Pope, believing that the English Church needed reform, sent William a consecrated banner, thereby authorizing a campaign against England. Wilhelm began to prepare for the invasion. Since William could not demand military service from his vassals outside Normandy, he called the barons to a council to obtain their consent to the campaign. In addition, the Duke began recruiting volunteers outside of Normandy. He built many transport ships, collected weapons and food. William's first assistant was Seneschal William fitz Osbern, whose brother had estates in England. Knights flocked to William's camp from everywhere. In addition to the Normans, there were knights from Brittany, Flanders, Picardy, Artois, etc. The number of William's troops is difficult to establish. Historians believe that Normandy could field 1,200 knights, and the rest of France less. Such a unique source of the time as the Bayeux carpet provides many images relating to the preparation of the campaign and the events associated with the conquest. According to this source, the largest vessels were open barques with one square sail, capable of accommodating about 12 horses. Most of the ships depicted were smaller. Historians believe that there were no more than seven hundred ships in total and that they could transport about 5 thousand people (according to Delbrück’s calculations, about 7 thousand people). Only 2 thousand warriors were heavily armed knights with trained horses (1,200 people from Normandy and 800 people from other regions). The remaining 3 thousand people are infantry, archers and ship crews. Crossing the English Channel was risky and new. However, Wilhelm managed to persuade the barons. While this preparation was underway, the English king Harold, knowing full well about everything that was happening in Normandy, gathered people and ships in the south of England. Suddenly and completely unexpectedly for him, northern England, by agreement with William, was attacked by the Norwegian king Harald Hardroda and Tosti, expelled from England. On September 20 they entered the Humber Bay with a large fleet. The English king had to hurry, leaving everything, north to York. In a desperate battle at Stamford Bridge, Harold defeated the English attackers. The Norwegian king and Tosti were killed (September 25, 1066). But on September 28, the army of William, Duke of Normandy, landed in the south of England in Pevensey. Harold, having learned about the enemy's landing, hurried south. His troops were weakened both as a result of the battle with the Norwegians and as a result of the campaign. When Harold entered London on October 6, the southern militia had not yet been assembled, and the bulk of Harold's army consisted of the Huskerls, nobles and peasants of the southeast. These were foot troops. Harold went to meet the conquerors and began to expect the enemy army, stopping 10 kilometers from Hastings. The meeting took place on October 14, 1066. Two armies, Anglo-Saxon and Norman (French in composition and language), represented, as it were, two stages in the development of military art, personifying the difference in the socio-political system of Normandy and England. The Anglo-Saxon army was mainly a peasant foot militia, armed with clubs and, at best, battle axes. Huskerls and earls had swords, Danish battle axes and shields, but also fought on foot. Harold had neither cavalry nor archers. The Norman army is an excellent heavily armed knightly cavalry. Knights fought from the saddle. There were also squads of archers. The defeat of the Anglo-Saxon army was a foregone conclusion. Harold and many tens and earls died in the battle. The defeat was complete and final. Wilhelm was in no hurry to take further action; only five days later he went to Dover and Canterbury. Meanwhile, in London, the prelates announced that Edgar Etheling was the heir to the throne of the Anglo-Saxon, but the northern counts did not support him. London townspeople decided not to resist William, apparently fearing the defeat of the city. Earls, lords, bishops and sheriffs vied with each other to reconcile with William and declare their loyalty. In general, southern England did not offer significant resistance to the conquerors. On Christmas Day 1066, William (1066-1087) was anointed king at Westminster. The ceremony took place in a peculiar situation: William’s retinue, following a false rumor of betrayal, set fire to the houses around the cathedral and began beating everyone who came to hand; everyone except William and the priests ran out of the church, and a fight ensued. But the ceremony was still completed properly. Wanting to gain the support of the population, William promised to “observe the good laws of Edward.” However, the robberies and violence of the Norman barons continued for quite a long time. In general, by the end of 1068, not only southern but also northern England recognized William. In order to guarantee the obedience of the citizens of London, the construction of a royal fortress, the Tower, began directly next to its city wall. In 1069, the northern regions of England rebelled against the new king, and William organized a punitive expedition there. As a result, not a single house or a single living person remained in the entire space between York and Durham. The Vale of York turned into a desert, which had to be repopulated already in the 12th century. The last rebellion against William was undertaken by the small landowner Hereward on the Isle of Ely in 1071.
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